港史文本 - HK In Texts: Challenges for an Evolving City - 160 Years of Port and Land Development in Hong Kong 何佩然

Challenges for an Evolving City

160 Years of Port and Land Development in Hong Kong

Challenges

for

160 Years of Port and

an Evolving City Land Development in Hong Kong

Ho Pui Yin

THE COMMERCIAL PRESS

Early twentieth century Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula, with reclamation carried out at the Royal Naval Base.

20 世紀的香港島及九龍半島,海軍基地正展開填海工程。

160 Years of Port and Land Development in Hong Kong

Ho Pui Yin

THE COMMERCIAL PRESS

Acknowledgements

Author

Translator

Challenges for an Evolving City

160 Years of Port and Land Development in Hong Kong

: Ho Pui Yin

: C. S. Johnson

Executive Editor : Lai Choi Yuk

Cover Designer: Foremedia Design & Production

Publisher

Printer

: The Commercial Press (H.K.) Ltd.

8/F., Eastern Central Plaza, 3 Yiu Hing Rd.,

Shau Kei Wan, H. K.

http://www.commercialpress.com.hk

: Elegance Printing & Book Binding Co., Ltd.

Bolck A, 4/F., Hoi Bun Industrial Bldg.,

6 Wing Yip St., Kwun Tong, Kowloon.

First edition first impression June 2004

The Commercial Press (H.K.) Ltd. Civil Engineering Department,

The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

ISBN 962 07 6336 X

Printed in Hong Kong

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}

Over the past 160 years, urban development in Hong Kong has witnessed the tremendous advances made in science and technology and mankind's ability to overcome nature's obstacles. The development of the port of Hong Kong and the utilization of its land resources bear all the hallmarks of a city that undergoes its modernisation.

In 2002, with a generous grant from the Civil Engineering Department of The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, the challenging research study, 160 Year of Port and Land Development in Hong Kong, got underway. Although the Civil Engineering Department has been in existence for just a few decades, it did not insist on making the evolution of department as the focus of study. Instead, it expressed a desire to extend the period under study further back in time to the mid-nineteenth century. This has broadened the research scope and enabled a more comprehensive analysis of the port and land development activity in Hong Kong. The support that the department renders to scholarly research is highly commendable.

To conclude a general evaluation of land and port development works over the past 160 years is no easy task. It is the data furnished by the Civil Engineering Department on important engineering projects that ensures the well-grounding of this research. My special thanks go to many past and present staff members of the department. They include: Ir Lo Yiu-ching, Ir Tsao Tak-kiang, Ir Lam Moon-tim, Ir Dr Lau Ching-kwong, Ir Ching Kam-cheong, Ir Mok Yick-fan, Ir Loo Khim-chung, Ir Tong Nai-piu, Ir Lam Sing-kwok, Ir Luk Fuk- man, Ir Leung Kin-man, Ir Chan Wai-leung, Ir Wong Chi-pan, Mr So Wai-kwong and Mr Tsui Wai-cheung. Despite their heavy workload, they offered valuable assistance by explaining to me, with great patience, the complicated details of the engineering projects. On many occasions, I had to draw on their professional expertise to verify the accuracy of data. Their co-operation and support have empowered this research study to acquire a firm understanding of all the major infrastructural works ever undertaken in Hong Kong.

In addition to government records, references were made to vast quantities of non-official publications during the two years of research. I am grateful to the many research institutions that provided generous assistance to this project. They include the History Department of The Chinese University of Hong Kong, the libraries of The Chinese University of Hong Kong, the libraries of The University of Hong Kong and the Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies. I also wish to thank Professor Cathy Potter for her valuable comments on the manuscript as well as members of my research team: Cheng Ling-ling, Wong Ka-kin, Yiu Wing-ka and Chui Wing-kin, for their efforts in gathering materials, collating data, typing and proofreading the manuscript. Special gratitude is due to the Hong Kong Museum of History, the Information Services Department, the Public Records Office, the Survey and Mapping Office of the Lands Department and the President of Hong Kong Collectors Society, Dr Tong Cheuk-man, for generously making their precious collections available to us. Their unreserved help has abundantly enriched the book and allows comprehensive and striking visual illustrations of the urbanisation of Hong Kong over a period of 160 years. Last but not least, I want to thank my husband and daughter for their constant encouragements. The successful completion of this research would not have been possible without their support.

With limited knowledge and research duration, I envisage that my analyses are immature and inevitably contain numerous errors and omissions. I would greatly appreciate feedback and comments from readers.

Foreword

In the early years, the development of Hong Kong was centred around the Hong Kong Island as a coastal city. Inevitably, one of the foremost tasks for the government in those days was to construct piers of various types and sizes, in order to establish external transport links.

Owing to its unique natural topography with steep hills stretching right to the coastline, Hong Kong Island did not offer an abundance of developable flat land. Exacerbated by pressure due to rapid population growth, it was only natural that reclamation was employed as a means

of boosting land resources, and it remained the sole method for one-and-a-half centuries. Since the very first reclamation project in 1852, Hong Kong has successfully created more than 6,000 hectares of land. It is no understatement to say that most of our homes in Hong Kong were built

on land formed by either levelling the mountain slopes or reclamation of the sea, or a combination of both. The contribution of reclamation to the development of commerce and industry in Hong Kong is even more far-reaching. Examples of major developments on reclamation include the central business district at Central in the early years, the Kwun Tong industrial district and the Kwai Chung Container Terminal in the 1960s, as well as the Cyberport and Hong Kong Science Park projects in recent years. Many of these reclamations made use of construction and demolition materials as fill material, saving costs while solving the disposal problem. These recycling practices

demonstrate both the frugality and ingenuity of the people of Hong Kong. These reclamation projects have over the years made possible the creation of new jobs and business opportunities for tens of thousands of people, laying a firm foundation for the economic prosperity of Hong Kong. It is no exaggeration to say that the reclamation history of Hong Kong is synonymous with the history of Hong Kong's development.

Recently there has been much public debate in Hong Kong on the subject of reclamation. Arguments are presented against further reclamation within the harbour. However, when we look at the Netherlands where about one-fifth of its land area was derived from reclamation, we

find that she has seldom, if ever, been accused, whether by European or non-European nations, of having inflicted damage on the environment. Reclamation and environmental protection are not necessarily mutually exclusive: they could actually co-exist harmoniously. Nevertheless, as engineers entrusted with the execution of development works, we should receive comments and criticisms from other people with an open mind, and adopt the best solution for the community

with conscientious judgement. At the same time, our critics should comprehend 'reclamation' at the macro-level, studying the issues from various angles. Any assertions will have to be based on sound reasoning. Only through objective analysis can we draw from the collective wisdom of the community and work in unison to build a better future for Hong Kong. Convincing arguments are built on authentic records and scientific analysis. Authentic records came from history. This book is indeed well qualified to fill the void in the land and port development history of Hong Kong. In addition, the in-depth analyses of the development process and its unique features are valuable references for current discussions over the function of reclamation in the urban development of Hong Kong.

This book enlightens us on how our predecessors had struggled for survival and development, making us more appreciative of what we took for granted. Much can be learnt by looking into the past. There is an old Chinese saying, “An honourable person learns from three sources of reflection history, other people's example and self-critique". As civil engineers, we currently face criticisms of various kinds. Yet, we will be filled with a sense of mission and pride as we become aware of the illustrious history of the civil engineering profession in Hong Kong and that we can draw upon the experiences of our counterparts in other countries. When we appreciate the sacred duty that we are entrusted with, we will remain steadfast in discharging our professional responsibilities. I would thus dedicate this book to all who are involved in the field of civil engineering. Let us rise to the challenge for the prosperity and betterment of Hong Kong.

Tsao Tak-kiang

Director of Civil Engineering

CONTENTS

Part L

Part II

Part LEE

Part IV

• Acknowledgements 1

• Foreword 2

• Introduction 6

Birth of the City of Victoria

1843-1883

1. Overview of Hong Kong's

Geographical Environment 11 Establishment as an Entrepôt 11 Geographical Features 13 Harbour Depth 14

2. City of Victoria - Choice of Site 17

Development Blueprint 18

First Land Auction 25

3. Victoria Harbour -

Early Port Facilities 33

Pier Works 34

Construction and Maintenance -

The Praya 36

Lighthouse Construction 37

4. Chinese Community Demarcation 44

Upper/Lower Bazaar and

Tai Ping Shan 44

First Reclamation - Bonham Strand 47

5. Embryonic City 51

Thwarted Reclamation Schemes 51 Sheung Wan - Western District

Reclamation 56

Chinese Community Praya Works 58

6. Summary 63

Expansion of the City Nucleus

1883-1945

1. Large-Scale Reclamation

in the City of Victoria 69 Praya Reclamation Scheme -

Western District to Central Praya East Reclamation Scheme 79

2. Development of the Kowloon

Peninsula 88

New Land Formation

1945-1982

1. Post-War Works Departments 127

Port Works Division 127 From Civil Engineering Office to

Engineering Development Department 128

2. Land Development Policy 136

Patrick Abercrombie's Urban

Blueprint 137

Town Planning in the 1960s 139

Kowloon Peninsula Reclamation

Kowloon Tong Garden City Plan 93

3. New Satellite Towns

Kwun Tong 142

Tsuen Wan 146

142

3. Maintenance of Port Facilities 96

Fairway Dredging 96

Typhoon Shelter Construction 99

4. Transport Hubs 105

Large Piers 105

Kowloon - Canton Railway 110 Airport Reclamation 112

5. Wartime Hong Kong 115

6. Summary 120

Castle Peak (Tuen Mun) 150

Sha Tin 154

4. New Face of Victoria Harbour

New Typhoon Shelters 165

New Piers 170 Fairway Dredging 177

5. International Trading Port 182

165

Kwai Chung Container Terminal 182 Kai Tak Airport Reclamation 186

6. Summary 191

Multi-Nucleus Expansion

1982-2003

1. Territorywide Development

Strategy 197 Development Outlook 197 Land Use Planning 203 From Engineering Development

Department to Civil Engineering Department 207

2. Rose Garden Project 213

Airport Core Programme 213

West Kowloon Reclamation 219

3. Port Development 222

Enhancement of Logistic Capabilities 223

New Port Facilities 227

4. Environmental Protection

231

Environmental - Friendly Fill Material 231

Disposal of Dredged Mud 235

Improvement of the Shing Mun River 240

243

5. Tourism Facilities

Hong Kong Disneyland 243

6. Summary 250

• Conclusion 253

• Notes 258

• Major References 269

Introduction

The return of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty has sparked an upsurge of interest in Hong Kong - both before and after 1997. The primary goal of many of the researchers is to disprove the conventional view of Hong Kong's century-old colonial history'. They attempt to prove that Hong Kong was not a mere barren land before the outbreak of the Opium War2, so as to refute the argument that the emergence of Hong Kong in modern times was due to British colonial rule. These researchers adopt one of two approaches: they either focus on investigating the origins of Hong Kong's culture prior to the Opium War, or concentrate on explaining the historical significance of the Opium War as a means of condemning the unjust invasion of China by the imperialists3. Those who are interested in this popular topic but fearful of getting embroiled in political controversies have turned their attention to Hong Kong's post-war economic takeoff and restructuring. This theme has become another major research focus for those studying Hong Kong in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Research that concentrates on Hong Kong's political role or post-war economic development has overemphasised the influence of politics or economics in the development of modern Hong Kong, without paying due attention to the city's urbanisation process.

Anyone wishing to gain a thorough understanding of Hong Kong's development must keep two things in mind.

Firstly, the territory covered by present-day Hong Kong has undergone two substantial expansions since 1841: in 1860 and 1898. Thus the territorial definition of Hong Kong changed significantly between the periods of 1841-1860, 1860-1898, and from 1898 to present. These changes are due to historical reasons and have linked the development of Hong Kong with the increase in land area through the development and creation of land. Briefly speaking, the modernisation of Hong Kong which has taken place since the mid-nineteenth century began with Hong Kong Island and then spread to the Kowloon Peninsula and the New Territories. The cultural development in the New Territories in the nineteenth century had no direct bearing on the urbanisation of Hong Kong Island.

Secondly, the statement that its prime geographical location and a deep and wide Victoria Harbour were pivotal to Hong Kong's development into an entrepôt is only valid for the second half of the nineteenth century. Such a viewpoint must be revised from the twentieth century

onwards. What came to be known as Victoria Harbour was the stretch of waters off the northern

shore of Hong Kong Island, from North Point and Hung Hum Point to the east, to Green Island and Stonecutters Island to the west. It had a maximum depth of 18 metres (59 feet)5. The harbour

could accommodate sailboats in the nineteenth century, the barges that carried supplies of the Qing government, and even ocean-going vessels with displacements of up to 2,300 tons and a draught of 6 metres (20 feet). With the passage of time, however, Victoria Harbour was silted up by continual deposits of silt and sediments from the Pearl River Delta, making it increasingly shallow. By the early twentieth century, maintenance dredging of the waterway had to be carried

out to keep the harbour operating properly and to serve the sea-going vessels with displacements of up to 9,000 tons'. According to government records of the 1920s, the largest vessels that

anchored inside Victoria Harbour had a draught of 10 metres (33 feet). By 2003, the largest

ships that entered Hong Kong displaced 72,000 tonnes, with a draught of 16 metres (53 feet). These vessels were far too large to be moored inside the original harbour. It was necessary to move the port centre westwards to the Ma Wan Channel area?. This illustrates the point that

since the twentieth century, the development of Hong Kong's port has had to rely on continuous infrastructural improvements and the commitment of human resources instead of nature's endowments.

Recognising these two important facts, this study on the history of Hong Kong's port and land development will identity the key elements behind the rise and blossoming of modern Hong Kong. The research undertaken below is more than a mere reconstruction of Hong Kong's development history on a macro-level; it also provides new and useful insights into the urbanisation

process and breaks new ground in the field of Hong Kong studies.

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1843-1883

Birth of the City of Victoria

1. Overview of Hong Kong's Geographical Environment

Establishment as an Entrepôt

Geographical Features

Harbour Depth

2. City of Victoria - Choice of Site

Development Blueprint

First Land Auction

Overview of Hong Kong's Geographical Environment

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 - 1883)

3. Victoria Harbour - Early Port Facilities

Pier Works

Construction and Maintenance - The Praya

Lighthouse Construction

4. Chinese Community Demarcation

Upper/Lower Bazaar and Tai Ping Shan

First Reclamation - Bonham Strand

5. Embryonic City

Thwarted Reclamation Schemes

Sheung Wan - Western District Reclamation

Chinese Community Praya Works

6. Summary

Natural resources, climate, location and external transport links are preconditions

for a city's development. Of all these prerequisites, Hong Kong, a flourishing trading hub that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, only possessed a geographical advantage. As a result, this blessing of nature was often cited as being the key to the emergence of Hong Kong since the middle of the nineteenth century. Actually, it was through changes in political, economic and military situations in China and in the rest of the world that Hong Kong was able to exploit fully its superior geographical position.

Establishment as an Entrepôt

Historical factors were behind Hong Kong's attaining the status as the transport hub of the Asia Pacific region. As early as the seventh century, Europeans had developed the China trade route via India. During the Sung and Yuan dynasties, coastal cities such as Mizhou and Dengzhou on the Shandong Peninsula, Hangzhou, Mingzhou (now Ningbo), Wenzhou, Xiuzhou (now Jiaxing), Jiangyin, Ganpu and Shanghai in Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces, as well as Quanzhou and Guangzhou (Canton), were all important centres engaged in foreign trade1o. The status of Guangzhou as a trading port rose dramatically when the shibosi (Offices of Maritime Trade) in Zhejiang and Fujian provinces were abolished by the central government in the first year of the reign of Ming Emperor Jiajing (1522), leaving Guangzhou the only city opened to foreign trade11. It became the place traders from Europe, Southeast Asia and Japan and other countries had to pass through to engage in trade with China12. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, although the central government had lifted the ban on maritime trade several times, the significant role played by Guangzhou in trade and commerce did not diminish.

In the mid-sixteenth century, Europeans were actively seeking to develop ports to serve as entrepôts along the coast of China. In 1575, the Portuguese took the lead

and established a permanent settlement in Macau, using it as their trading base in China. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the British took advantage of the

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

Challenges for an Evolving City

navigational breakthroughs brought about by the Industrial Revolution and expanded its sphere of influence. They not only coveted the Portuguese-occupied Macau13, but

also sent many missions to China to seek the opening up of cities such as Chushan (Zhoushan), Ningbo and Tianjin as trading ports, as well as the development of the islands near Chushan as stopovers. In 1839, when the British East India Company lost its trade monopoly in the Far East14, the British merchants scrambled to retain

trade interests in China. Located at the mouth of the Pearl River estuary, Hong Kong Island was able to fulfill the China trade requirements for the British merchants from

the mid-nineteenth century onwards. Hong Kong enjoyed a prime geographical location,

and the outbreak of the Opium War marked the island's debut on the international

stage. To develop Hong Kong into an entrepôt, however, the Hong Kong government had to first resolve the twin problems of a severe land shortage and anchorage for the ocean-going vessels during the passage of typhoons.

Today, geographically Hong Kong encompasses Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories south of the Shenzhen River and more than 230 outlying islands15. In 2003, Hong Kong occupied a total area of 1,102 square kilometres. On 26 January 1841, after China lost the Opium War, the British annexed Hong Kong Island. When the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) was signed by the Chinese and British governments in August 1842, ceding Hong Kong Island to the United Kingdom in perpetuity, the territory encompassed an area of 75 square kilometres. In 1860, the British-French allied forces invaded Peking (Beijing) and the Convention of Peking was signed on 24 October 1860. As a result of this treaty, the Qing government was forced to cede to the British, in perpetuity, the Kowloon Peninsula, south of Boundary Street. This increased the size of the territory by an additional eight square kilometres. On 9 June 1898, under the Convention on the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, the Qing court was forced to grant to Great Britain a 99-lease on the New Territories,

north of Boundary Street and south of the Shenzhen River, and more than 230 islands lying within Hong Kong waters - a total area of 975 square kilometres. After the

signing of this convention, the colony had a total area of approximately 1,060 square kilometres and essentially possessed the geographical boundaries of modern Hong

Kong. When we study the emergence of the city of Hong Kong from the mid-nineteenth

century, the starting point is the island of Hong Kong.

Geographical Features

Hong Kong Island lies between latitude 22° 11' and 22° 17' north and longitude 114° 07' and 114° 15' east, with an area of just 75 square kilometres. Situated at the end of the seaward extension of the South China massif, the landforms of Hong Kong are similar to those of South China and are characterised by hilly terrains. There are

a large number of hills on the island, and the topography displays sharp and frequent spatial variations within a short distance. Highland areas do not concentrate in a core

region, but are scattered in different localities of the island. Lowland areas are rather

limited; there are long and narrow strips of lowland on the northern coast and along

the southern side of the island. A line of hills that runs in a west-east direction divides

the island into southern and northern parts. This line of hills starts from Victoria Peak

at 554 metres above sea level in the west and ends at Mount Parker at 531 metres in

the east. The island generally slopes down from north to south, with the south having a flatter terrain, levelling off to an altitude of between 250-300 metres. The prominent uplands are the Stanley Peninsula and the Cape d'Aguilar Peninsula, with the hills running in a north-south direction18.

To sum up, Hong Kong Island is hampered by a severe lack of developable lowland. Its geographical characteristics have placed a natural barrier between the inland and the coastal regions. The coastal regions are better endowed, while the inland areas are generally dominated by harsh hilly landforms. Such geomorphological setting prompted people to set up their homes along the coast. Whenever there was a need for more land, it could only be met by building on the steep slopes. Faced with a scarcity of usable land, the development of Hong Kong Island, sneeringly described as a "barren island" in the mid-nineteenth century", required the mobilisation of enormous amounts of human resources. Mountains had to be levelled and land had to be reclaimed from

the sea, in order to overcome the island's geographical handicap.

Challenges for an Evolving City

1.1

Situated on the western side of the Pacific Ocean, at the entrance of the Pearl

River along the South China coast, Hong Kong's climate is classified as subtropical. Each year, between May and October, an average of five to six typhoons originate from the waters east of the Philippines and move northwards towards the South China Sea20. These tropical cyclones that head towards Hong Kong from the Western Pacific Ocean often wreak havoc along the coast of Hong Kong Island. The passage of a typhoon is often followed by persistent heavy rain. According to Hong Kong Observatory records

for 1884-2002, the highest single-day rainfall was the 534 millimetres recorded on 19 July 1926. This is equivalent to 24 per cent of the mean annual rainfall of 2,221 millimetres2 for the period 1884-2002. There are significant rainfall variations between the rainy season (May-September) and the dry season (October-April), with differences ranging between 900 and 3,000 millimetres of rainfall22. The speedy development of the city was hampered by meagre land resources and unstable climatic conditions.

Harbour Depth

In addition to a shortage of developable land and a less than ideal climate, the depth of Hong Kong's harbour was a fundamental issue if the island was to be developed into a premier entrepôt during the era of flourishing maritime trade. A harbour of sufficient depth could sometimes compensate for other shortcomings. An ideal harbour for ships to drop anchor is one that is sufficiently deep and provides safe shelter during typhoons. In 1806, James Horsburgh, hydrographer to the East India Company, conducted surveys in Hong Kong waters. He found that the waters west of Kap Shui Mun, in the

East Lamma Channel between Hong Kong Island and Lamma Island, at Lei Yue Mun to the north of Hong Kong Island, and at Tai Tam Wan to the south of the island, were excellent typhoon shelters and suitable mooring sites 23.

According to the topographical map drawn by Lt Thomas Collinson in 184524,

1.1

1.2

Situated in the Northern Hemisphere at lati-

tude 22° 11' - 22° 17' north and longitude 114°

07' - 114° 15' east, Hong Kong Island had an area of just 75 km. It was described as a bar- ren island in the mid-nineteenth century.

Victoria Peak, located in the northern part of Hong Kong Island, was an ideal place to moni- tor the harbour and disseminate information.

1.2

1.3

Located south of Hong

Kong Island, Aberdeen was one of the early fishing villages devel- oped in the mid-nine- teenth century.

City of Victoria - Choice of Site

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 - 1883)

Challenges for an Evolving City

the deepest waters around Hong Kong Island were found in:

1. The Lyemoon Pass (now Lei Yue Mun Channel), along the eastern coast of the island. It had a depth of up to 46 metres (150 feet) and was only 0.4 kilometres (0.25 miles)25 from the territory. When ships entered the harbour from the east, this bottleneck-shaped pass provided a safe haven for vessels seeking shelter from an approaching typhoon.

2. The East Lamma Channel, southwest of Hong Kong Island and northeast of Lamma Island. It was 46 metres (150 feet) deep and vessels sailing in from the south had to pass through this channel. The southwestern district of Aberdeen was shielded by Ap Lei Chau and was a suitable area for mooring south of the island.

3. The stretch of waters along the north coast of Hong Kong Island. This waters, later known as Victoria Harbour, only had a maximum depth of 18 metres (59 feet). Nevertheless, it was a convergence point for ships entering Hong Kong from the easterly and westerly directions and sea-going vessels were able to moor here.

The above list did not include the Ma Wan Channel, with a depth of up to 58 metres (190 feet)26, deep enough to accommodate the largest vessels. When port development works were carried out in the mid-nineteenth century, it could only centre around the waters of Hong Kong Island. Also, the harbour depths listed in the 1845 Collinson map differ from the 2000-2001 figures provided by the Marine Department. According to the Marine Department, the Lei Yue Mun Channel had a maximum depth of just 43 metres (141 feet)27, while the East Lamma Channel was up to 43 metres (141 feet) deep28. On the other hand, Victoria Harbour, the principal fairway in the past, along the coast of Central, maintained a depth of 17 metres (56 feet) through regular dredging 29. The harbour around the island has grown progressively shallower, due to sediment accumulations at the lower reaches of the Pearl River over the past 100-plus years. This partly explains the discrepancies between these two sets of figures; the other reason is the dissimilar measurement methods adopted in different eras.

It is indisputable, from a geographical point of view that Hong Kong Island

was desperately short of land. Every year, between May and September, typhoons threatened the island, and the most suitable dwelling regions were those flat areas that were protected from the typhoons. According to the 1841 population census, 2,000 and 1,200 Chinese lived in Aberdeen and Shau Kei Wan respectively equivalent to 43 per cent of the total population of 7,45030. The geographical locations of these two districts were partly responsible for the concentration of population.

During the nineteenth century, the trading vessels in operation were mainly

barges used by the Qing government to carry supplies, and junks. The ocean-going ships of that period were miniscule when compared with the mammoth vessels of today. With a depth of up to 18 metres (59 feet), the waters off the north shore of Hong Kong Island fully met the mooring requirements of the sea-going vessels. Victoria Harbour was ideal for temporary stays, and a natural typhoon shelter was formed by

Victoria Peak in the south and the Kowloon Peninsula in the north. Thus, when the British landed in Possession Point31, they did not make the fishing ports lying off the east or south coast of the island their main base. Their foremost purpose was to set up

a military stronghold on the northern shore of the island. With this goal in mind, the British forces first camped at East Point (the area now known as Causeway Bay) and then in the Shek Tong Tsui area, with Victoria Peak looming in the background. Both offered panoramic views of the Kowloon Peninsula. This coastal area, stretching from Jardine's Lookout in East Point to Sheung Wan, provided an ideal site for the development

of a political and economic zone. At the same time, the decision of the British forces had made the city's construction far more difficult.

Challenges for an Evolving City

1.4

Development Blueprint

In 1843, the government established the post of Surveyor General to assume responsibility for the development of the city and the port. The Surveyor General's Office was the earliest department in charge of civil engineering works, and was the predecessor of the present-day Works branch of the Environment, Transport and Works Bureau. On 9 May 1844, A. T. Gordon was officially appointed to this position. On 6 July 1843, while still serving as the Land Officer, A. T. Gordon drafted a development

plan for the City of Victoria. This was the first blueprint formulated by the colonial government32. He set sights on the vast Wong Nei Chung Valley and recommended

that it be made the core district of the city, and that the tract of land that covered what is now known as Admiralty, Mid-Levels and Central be developed into Government Hill. Construction and repair works were required for the seawall along the coast that stretched from Morrison Hill in Wan Chai to Central. The above measures were proposed to facilitate governance and economic development. The area that stretched from Government Hill to the coast could be developed by foreign traders into a business district, with the benefit of convenient transportation. The land south of Queen's Road was to be developed as a residential district for both Chinese and expatriates.

A. T. Gordon's urban plan offered development space for political, economic and civilian uses, as well as balancing the interests of various parties. It managed to incorporate the major works such as seawall construction and road repair and maintenance into the agenda. The blueprint basically spelled out the growth plan for the second half of the nineteenth century, with development focused on the northern waterfront of Hong Kong Island, the areas north of Government Hill and the Wong Nei Chung Valley. The western and southern parts of the island were not included in the blueprint. This explained why these areas were developed much later. The administration readily accepted A. T. Gordon's blueprint. Only the development plan for Wong Nei Chung

Valley failed to materialise, due to its marshy terrain and health concerns raised over the presence of marsh miasma33.

In the 1840s, the development of Hong Kong Island could be divided into several major parts. The northern part of the island, that is, around present-day Admiralty and Central, was the military and administration centre. Many of the newly established principal government departments had their building erected there, including Murray Barracks, a magazine, a military hospital, a police station, the Harbour Master's Office, Victoria Gaol and a post office. The area came to be called Government Hill. The foreign trading houses established footholds along the island's northern waterfront to

1.5

1.4

1.5

Bowrington in the 1870s, with Morrison Hill to the left. Numerous warehouses and godowns were established along the coast.

City of Victoria in the 1870s. The clock tower and the Roman Catholic church could be vaguely seen in this photograph.

Challenges for an Evolving City

1.6

1.7

1.8

Panoramic view of Victoria Harbour from Victoria Peak in the late nineteenth century. Victoria Barracks is in the lower left corner of the photograph, with Praya East (now Wan Chai) in the right corner. Wharves and warehouses lined the shore.

Causeway Bay in the late nineteenth century, with Kellet Island in the middle and the typhoon shelter (bulit in 1883) in the right of the photograph. Warehouses and dockyards spread along the waterfront.

Built in 1869, the City Hall was the cultural centre of the late nine- teenth century. It was demolished in 1933 and the site was later occupied by The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank, and the Bank of China (1947).

ན

1.7

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

1.8

Challenges for an Evolving City

1.9

The Praya, Central, in the latter half of the nine- teenth century. Piers built by foreign compa- nies and local enterprises lined the waterfront.

1.10 The Praya, Central, in the 1880s. Modes of

conveyance used along the water front in- cluded rickshaws, palanquins and sedan chairs.

1.10

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

Challenges for an Evolving City

Table 1.1 Lots sold by public sale on 14 June 1841

Lot Type

and No of

Lot Number

Area

Annual Rent (£/1,000 sq ft)

Lots

Marine

(39 lots)

2-5, 10-13, 15, 20-22, 36, 40-43,

46-47, 51-65, 67-69, 72-73

Varied

0.9-12.5

Town

10-11, 18, 20, 22-23, 45

5,512.5 sq ft

1.81

(75 lots)

1-9, 12, 15-17, 19, 21, 24-41,

43-44, 46-49, 53-72, 75, 80, 87

11,025 sq ft

1.81

13-14

11,865 sq ft

1.77

14,175 sq ft

1.83

50-52

Unknown

Suburban

1-18

(22 lots)

19-21, 23

Upper Bazaar

(118 lots)

1-118

5 acres

0.045

Unknown

504 sq ft

1.98

Lower Bazaar

(150 lots)

1-150

Source:

800 sq ft

1.25

CO 129/2, "Mr Gordon, the Land Officer's Report on the Northern Face of Hong Kong”, 6 July 1843,

pp. 152-176.

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

1.11 Located in Central's Pedder Street, the clock tower was built in 1863. The first Harbour Master's

Office could be vaguely seen behind the clock tower, on the hill slope.

The island's northern coast was rapidly turned into the nucleus of the City of Victoria due to keen interest shown by the private sector. To lessen the burden on the administration and to speed up the pace of development, the colonial government conducted the first public land auction in June 1841, not long after the British troops went ashore. It hoped to raise revenues and develop the island with the help of foreign money. The development potential evaluations of the various districts made by the foreign merchants during this auction pointed to the advantages of the north shore.

conduct commercial activity. In this area, these private enterprises actively constructed piers, docks and warehouses. The areas around present-day Wan Chai and Happy Valley were largely occupied by cemeteries, religious bodies and schools 34. By the end of the 1840s, building structures modelled on those of the British cities included Murray Building which was built in 1846 and used as government headquarters; the residence of the commander of the British Forces in Hong Kong; the Hong Kong Club; St John's Cathedral, with its foundation stone laid in 1847 and completed in 1849. These buildings made Hong Kong Island look just like a British provincial city.

First Land Auction

On 7 June 1841, the colonial government gazetted the four lot types of available for public auction: Marine, Town, Suburban and Bazaar. Due to technical problems, the auction had to be postponed by one week; hence the official land transaction date

was 14 June 1841. The auction details are provided in Table 1.1.

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Challenges for an Evolving City

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Figures concerning the number of lots offered at the first auction and the lot numbers are error-strewn. Most of the current publications state that a total of 50 Marine lots were offered at the June 1841 auction35. According to the 1886-1887 report of the Hong Kong Land Commission36, and the 1842 Henry Pottinger's map37, now kept by the Lands Department, the colonial government earmarked and numbered 100 lots for auction, with No 73 as the highest lot number. Some of the lot numbers were not used, while in some instances a number was applied repeatedly to several lots. With regard to the Marine lots scheduled for auction on 7 June 1841, John Robert Morrison, Acting Secretary and Treasurer to the Superintendents of Trade, had commented that of the 100 lots, only 50 of them were qualified. This was probably the cause of the subsequent erroneous reporting that only 50 lots were sold at the first land auction.

The actual number of lots sold at the auction held on 14 June 1841 was 404: 39 Marine

lots, 75 Town lots, 22 Suburban lots and 268 Bazaar lots38. John Robert Morrison

stated that the annual rent for these lots was set at a flat rate of £10 per lot, but in fact it varied. Such data have to be clarified before embarking on a study of land development in the early years. (Refer to Table 1.1 for details)

The importance of the north shore is revealed by the auction results. The 39 Marine lots, with a combined area of 547,031 square feet (excluding those lots that

did not have the land area disclosed), yielded a total annual rent of £3,232. Of the 75

Town lots that were offered, the average size was about 11,025 square feet and was

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Military Hospital

Rowder Magazine

Barrack for 200 men

Mr. Holliday

Burial Ground

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Cotholic

Burn's Pier

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Larkin Pier

SO MOM

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Rice fields

Bridle Road to Chek Chu

and dog

1.12 The 1842 Pottinger's Map kept at the Land Office recorded the lots offered at the first land auction. One hundred lots were earmarked for auction but some of them failed to sell. The highest lot number used in this map was No 73 as some of the

numbers were used several times, while other numbers were skipped.

changed an annual rent of £20. Lots that were 5,512.5 square feet in size were liable to a rent of £10 per year. The government derived a total annual land rent of about £1,340 from the 75 Town lots. Twenty-two Suburban lots were sold, 18 of these lots each had an area of 5 acres and were charged approximately £10 in annual rent. For

lots 19 to 21 and 23 the government rent was waived. Thus the administration only generated £180 per year in annual rent from the Suburban lots. The Bazaar lots were

subdivided into Upper Bazaar and Lower Bazaar. The 118 Upper Bazaar lots each measured 504 square feet, giving a total area of 59,472 square feet. The annual rent for each of these lots was 18s 3p. For the Lower Bazaar lots, the 150 lots of 800 square feet each represented a total area of 120,000 square feet; each lot yielded an annual rent of £1 2s 6p. It is estimated that Upper and Lower bazaars brought annual rent totalling £276 to government coffers. The above figures fully demonstrate the

fact that the administration collected far more annual rent from the Marine lots than

from the other lot types.

During the decade between 1844 and 1854, the colony's development relied largely on financial support from Great Britain. The year with the least subsidy was 1854 when the colony received £5,966, representing 18 per cent of the territory's expenditure. The highest assistance amount was recorded in 1844 when £54,234 was given by the British government. This was equivalent to 85 per cent of Hong Kong's total public spending. Thus land auction proceeds and annual rent became the major income sources

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

Challenges for an Evolving City

Table 1.2 Results of the First Auction of Marine Lots

32 cancelled,

18,060

140

7.75

Holliday Wise & Co

replaced by 65

4,600

5.43

Framjee Jamsetjee

Small house

Lot Number

Area (sq ft)

Annual Rent Annual Rent

Purchaser

Purpose

(£)

(£/1,000 sq ft)

38 cancelled,

replaced by 64

7,616

7.48

Dale

7,000

11.43

Lindsay Co

Warehouse

6,000

12.5

MacVicar & Co

Warehouse

7,800

8.21

Dent & Co

Warehouse

9,700

9.79

MacVicar & Co

Warehouse

6,900

9.42

Dent & Co

Warehouse

11,500

100

8.7

Fox Rawson & Co

Warehouse

5,400

7 cancelled,

6,321

7.75

9.26

Dadabhoy Rustomjee

Workshop

16,500

115

6.97

Turner & Co

Warehouse

Bates and Kent

30,600

265

8.66

Captain Larkins

Warehouse

replaced by 61

35,000

250

7.14

8 cancelled,

replaced by 67

7,740

7.75

Pestonjee Cowasjee

Dwelling house

P. Robertson Albany

Godowns

Warehouse

51, 52

Unknown

205

Unknown

Jardine, Matheson & Co

Warehouse

9 cancelled,

replaced by 62

6,966

7.75

Markwick

9,600

11,200

122

5.42

Heerjeebhoy Rustomjee

Warehouse

12,096

7.69

Edwards

5,418

7.75

Scott

Warehouse

4.64

Heerjeebhoy Rustomjee

Warehouse

17,544

136

7.75

Murrow

Warehouse

10,600

3.58

Holliday & Co

Dwelling house

17,544

136

7.75

Pybus

Warehouse

& warehouse

2,322

7.75

Gemmell & Co

10,800

2.96

Pedder

15,900

1.26

Webster

780

8.97

Framjee Jamsetjee

Chinese house

2,322

7.75

White

Chinese house

Warehouse

10,062

7.75

Gibb, Livingston & Co

Dwelling house &

10,062

7.75

Pybus

warehouse

Unknown

Unknown Unknown

Jardine, Matheson & Co

18 cancelled,

11,610

7.75

Christopher Fearon

Dwelling house

replaced by 53

19 cancelled,

24,768

192

7.75

Oswald

replaced by 54

16,200

6.85

Dadabhoy Rustomjee

14,400

150

10.42

Innes Fletcher & Co

Warehouse

156,100

140

0.9

Gemmell & Co

Dwelling house &

warehouse

Unknown

Jardine, Matheson & Co

Total

Approximately Approximately

547,031

3,232

CO 129/2, "Mr Gordon, the Land Officer's Report on the Northern Face of Hong Kong", 6 July 1843.

Source:

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

1.13

1.14

1.15

1.13 The desolate-looking West Point before reclamation. (photograph taken in 1869)

1.14 West Point in the late 1860s to the early 1870s. It was developed into Kennedy

Town after reclamation.

1.15 Bowrington and East Point in the 1870s. The middle are properties owned by

Jardine, Matheson & Co. Kellet Island could be seen in the left of the photo.

1.16 Jardine, Matheson & Co's sugar refinery at East Point (now Causeway Bay).

for the early administration. From the middle to the end of the nineteenth century, government rent made up a significant portion of public revenue. In 1855, its contribution of £30,203 represented 63 per cent of the fiscal revenue for the year. During the 9- year period of 1853-1862, such source of income averaged between 41 and 63 per

cent of government revenue.

The results of the land auction conducted in June 1841 and the annual rent

amount reflected the high value of the Marine lots stretching from Wan Chai to Central,

as compared with the eastern Suburban lots and the Bazaar lots in Sheung Wan. Hence, most of the major port facilities and infrastructure were located on the island's north

1.16

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883) ·

Size Anmol.

Rent

At 6966 154

at th

bring

Chaimonds

Mr Markunich

.2372.18.

851118

Mr White

Mr Gale

18,060.160.

Hoth day

8774060.

Marin Sots

granted by A Johnston heef

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rate of

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1841

par

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Mamers

Part of memord. Lot No 9 of Captem Ethot's sale and afterward! granted. & Mr Markwich - not built upon

China house have been built repon that tot

Forfeited Set N°38 of Captain Ellect's sall, afterwards grantì.

to Mr sale.

Surrounded-

by.

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Wise of: Farfurted. Lot 1° 32 of faftem Albert's sole afterwards granted to

Moh's Holliday Were the surrounded by

Gestorges Cowarzees

14062.78. 16062.78

Gett Livingston H

Captain Pybus

I to such Lot

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Pat of forfeited. Lot 18 of Explore Went's Sale afterwards granted in Postinget. forrasjer, who has built a dwelling house

Remains unimproved

Thot. Kuilt upon

fuilt

(Jame (ophy)

- Michan

(Signed) A.J. Gordon,

Land Officer.

Much and Wrotham

1.17 Land sale record for the first land auction held on 14 June 1841. The lot numbers, lot areas,

annual rent and owners' names could be clearly identified in the record.

shore. On the other hand, noting that foreign merchants were vying with each other for land on the north coast to build piers, godowns and private dwellings, the government drew on their economic power to develop the port. The evolution of the northern shore into the core zone of the city had much to do with the efforts of the merchants, and was not purely due to the policies of the colonial government. However, this turned out to be a double-edged sword, since the government's dependence on foreign traders impeded the progress of the city's development in the second half of the nineteenth century. Those who had acquired land rights along the coast at the first auction were to become the fiercest opponents in the 1860s of the Central reclamation works proposed, as the government had failed to determine precisely the ownership issue of the coastal lots. With inadequate manpower and economic resources at its disposal, the government was unable to dictate the pace of development.

Victoria Harbour - Early Port Facilities

Once the government decided to develop the north shore, it had to assemble

a project team for the city's construction. In 1843, the position of Surveyor General was established, carrying an annual salary of £1,000. On 9 May 1844, A. T. Gordon

was appointed to the post. From 1844, the Surveyor General's Office was responsible for the city's infrastructural development, as well as for repair and maintenance work. Its areas of responsibilities included port construction, site formation and reclamation, as well as land lease and sale matters. In 1867, the Surveyor General supervised six major subordinates/subdepartments: First Clerk of Surveyor General, Clerk of Works, Public Gardens Branch, Waterworks Branch, Chinese Overseer and Assistant Engineer.

The Assistant Engineer was in charge of reclamation and port works. Such an administrative structure shows that in the early days of development on Hong Kong Island, emphasis was placed on waterworks, gardening, reclamation and harbour works. The practice of allocating responsibilities to individual officers instead of work units reflected the plenary powers of the Surveyor General, who had absolute authority over the planning, construction and maintenance of all public works. Thus, it is necessary to analyse the individual work projects in order to understand the development of Victoria Harbour

in the early colonial days. When the city was still in its infancy, it was reasonable to have a small number of principal administrators to exercise control over all the engineering works in Hong Kong. But as the city began to grow, the organisation structure of the Surveyor General's Office had to move with the times and be adjusted accordingly.

In 1870, the Surveyor General's Office was renamed the Survey Department, and was later reorganised into the Public Works Department in 1883. In 1891, a Praya Reclamation Office was established within the Public Works Department; it was the first works department in charge of port development. In 1982, with its principal subordinate departments gaining independence, the Public Works Department was dissolved, with its headquarters functions assumed by the Lands and Works Branch. The Lands

and Works Branch was reorganised into the Works Branch in 1989 and was renamed

Challenges for an Evolving City

1.18 Coolies busily carrying water buck- ets to the junks moored at Liangrong Pier in the nineteenth century. The shore was lined with many small

hotels.

Year

Table 1.3 Pier Construction and Repair (1841-1882)

Work Item

Expenditure (£)

1841-1845

Construction and maintenance - Harbour Master's seawall and pier

*559

1846

Construction - three landing piers, Victoria

502

1848-1849 Extension - Harbour Master's Pier

354

the Works Bureau on 1 July 1997. On 1 July 2002, the Works Bureau became part of the Environment, Transport and Works Bureau, following the merger with the Environment and Food Bureau, and the Transport Bureau.

Pier Works

Over a period of 42 years, starting from 1841, when there was no specific department charged with infrastructural works, until 1883, when the Surveyor General's Office became known as the Public Works Department, the port works undertaken by the government were largely confined to the construction and maintenance of piers, seawall and the Praya. The first pier built inside Victoria Harbour was situated near the present-day Chater Garden. Construction works for the Harbour Master's landing place began in 1841. The whole project, including a temporary residence for the Harbour Master, was completed in 1845, at a cost of $2,460 (£559). Although the outlay represented only 1.2 per cent of the total government spending of HK$198,882 during the 1841- 1844 period3, it marked the beginning of governmental involvement in the construction and repair of piers. After its completion, the Harbour Master's Pier continued to undergo significant extension and repair; a total of £1,358 was spent between 1844 and 1882. Between 1841 and 1882, government expenditure on construction and repair amounted to £16,060, of which £11,38940 was invested in the building of piers (71 per cent), with the balance spent on pier reconstruction and repair. During that period, approximately 30 piers came on stream, with the majority located within the boundaries of the City of Victoria. This illustrates the importance of the north shore as a goods loading and unloading area and a passenger-handling place. The piers built within the Chinese community were very small in scale, as evidenced by the £16 outlaid on piers in Tai Pin Shan. (For expenditure details on pier construction and repair refer to Table 1.3)

Besides government efforts, private enterprises were also actively involved in

1849-1850

Repair - Tai Ping Shan No 3 pier

1849-1850

Repair - Tai Ping Shan piers

1852

Repair - Harbour Master's Pier

1855

Construction - two landing piers, Victoria West

335

1855-1858

Construction - two landing piers, Victoria East

380

1860-1864

Construction - landing piers, Victoria

4,661

1867

Construction - Kowloon praya and landing pier

521

1869

Construction - landing pier near police station

1,039

1876

Construction - powder magazine and jetty at Stonecutters Island

2,187

1876

Construction - timber jetty at Tsim Sha Tsui

1877-1882

Maintenance - piers

§ 643

1879

Construction - timber jetty at Yau Ma Tei

$562

1880

Construction -

- new timber jetty at the foot of Bonham Strand

#§ 560

1881

Reconstruction - piers

$ 3,656

Total

16,060

** The original records were in dollars. To facilitate analysis, the British pound sterling is adopted, using

the 1841 exchange rate of £1 = $4.4

§ 1881 rate £1 HK$5.334

# 1880 budgeted expenditure Sources:

"Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canals, Bridges, Buildings, &c., Not of a Military Nature, Which Have Been Undertaken During the Year", Hong Kong Blue Book, H 2, Public Works, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1844-1882.

CO 129/5, "Detailed Account Disbursement of the Land Department From June 1841 to January 1844",

10 February 1844, pp. 143-148.

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

Expenditure (£)

Table 1.4 Construction and Repair - The Praya and Seawalls (1844-1882)

Year

Work Item

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 - 1883)

1859-1860

Construction - The Praya, Victoria East

548

1859-1861

Construction - The Praya, along Central Market

1,465

1860-1864

Construction - The Praya, Victoria

6,026

1.19 Coolies crowding around the

pier, looking for employment.

1865-1867

Extension - The Praya

3,043

1865-1876

Repair - The Praya

8,022

1867

Construction - seawall in front of Kowloon lots 4 and 12

392

1868

Repair - The Praya and seawall in front of Pedder Street Wharf

5,135

1880

Reconstruction - The Praya

*45,792

1882

Maintenance - The Praya

*197

Total

70,620

the building and restoration of piers. According to H. Pottinger's map of 1842, there were a large number of private piers installed in the northern part of the island. They included those built by Dent & Co, Burn Larkins, and Jardine, Matheson & Co in East Point and Chong Wan (Central)41. The piers constructed by the government for public use were both fewer and smaller than the private ones.

Construction and Maintenance - The Praya

As the trading hub in Asia Pacific, the government had to build and maintain the Praya and the seawall to facilitate the embarking and disembarking of passengers and the handling of cargo. Works on the Praya involved small-scale reclamations along the coastline. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the Praya was a thoroughfare along the shore used by horse carriages and pedestrians, with a width of 50 to 100 feet. Between 1844 and 1882, a total of £70,620 was spent on the Praya and seawall, with Praya construction and extension costing £11,082. The repair, maintenance and reconstruction cost of the Praya came to £54,011, equivalent to 76 per cent of the total expenditure. The bulk of construction and extension works on the Praya were undertaken between 1859 and 1867. From 1867 onwards, the work nature was mainly repair and maintenance. Thus, the Praya began to take shape in the 1860s and no significant changes were made until 1882. As for the seawalls, most of the works were carried out in 1867 and 1868 and involved less than £5,527. Taken together, expenditure on the Praya and seawalls was £54,560 higher than that spent on piers(£16,060), that is, 340

per cent more.

The original records were in Hong Kong dollars. To facilitate analysis, the British pound sterling is

adopted, using the 1881 exchange rate of £1 = HK$5.334.

Source:

Lighthouse Construction

To cope with burgeoning economic activity in the Asia Pacific region, better navigational and port facilities were required. In 1857, the Office of Committee of Privy Council for Trade asked the colonial government to erect on the Pratas Shoal in the South China Sea a lighthouse to provide guidance to the mariners. The proposed lighthouse was to be 35 feet above the highest level of the island or 75 feet above sea

level. It was to be a cylindrical structure made either of iron or stone material, capable of protecting the lighthouse keepers against attacks from pirates who roamed the Pratas Shoal. The two major considerations in planning this lighthouse were manpower and funding42. The cost of construction was estimated to be $6,400 (£750). It was projected

that two European officers and six Manila sailors would be required to man the lighthouse, which would involve considerable recurrent outlays. To save cost, suggestions were made to build a sturdy lightvessel in Britain and station it at a spot where there was a high incidence of shipwrecks. It was to light up the navigational channel to aid the seafarers. It was suggested that the use of shift work could reduce manpower requirements

Challenges for an Evolving City

1.20

མམ་

แก

1.21

by one-third. Due to financial constraints, the lighthouse proposal was shelved. More than 10 years elapsed before an improved Hong Kong economy enabled the lighthouse plan to be put back on the agenda.

Besides dealing with the issue of vessel safety around the waters of Hong Kong, the 1870 lighthouse plan also determined the limits of Hong Kong's territorial waters. On 13 February 1873, after lengthy considerations, the government proposed to build lighthouses at Waglan Island, on a site northeast of Lamma Island, and at Gap Rock, located 26 miles southwest of Hong Kong Island43. Despite numerous contacts with China, consent was not given. In the end the proposal had to be shelved as the territorial waters issue could not be resolved44. The government had to look for alternative sites and eventually settled for Cape d'Aguilar (Hok Tsui), Green Island and Cape Collinson to build the lighthouses. On 9 December 1873, the Legislative Council passed Ordinance No 17, prescribing the regulations governing lighthouses, buoys and beacons +5. On 11 March 1874, the Legislative Council formally approved the allocations of HK$15,000

1.20 View of the Praya west of Pedder Street. Measuring about thirty feet wide, the Praya could comfortably accommo- date rickshaws and pedestrians. The Jardine, Matheson & Co building is in the left of the photograph and the third building on the left (shortes than the others)is the Lane & Crawford's emporium.

1.21 In the 1870s, the seawall of the Praya in Central was equipped with mooring facilities for small boats. The building on the right is Jardine & Matheson Co; in the middle was the clock tower, Wardley House is on the left. The site was occupied by The HongKong and Shanghai Bank from 1865 to 1882.

1.22

རྟོག་པརཤག

1.23

ོབ་ཏུ

1.22 View of Hong Kong Island's waterfront in the 1870s. Slightly to the right of

the centre is Pedder's Wharf, with Jardine, Matheson & Co on the right and the Hong Kong Hotel on the left. One of the twin domes of the Roman Catholic church, in Wellington Street, could be vaguely seen in the background.

1.23 Corner of Pedder Street and the Praya with a landing place in the foreground.

The Dent & Co building is in the centre of the photograph. The clock tower could be seen in the right at the top of Pedder Street. (photograph taken at the end of 1860)

1.24 The first lighthouse, erected at Cape d'Aguilar was commissioned on 16 April 1875.

1.25 Gap Rock Lighthouse,

built in 1892.

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

and HK$2,500 for the construction of lighthouses at Cape d'Aguilar and Green Island respectively. No information on construction cost is available for the lighthouse at Cape Collinson, but it is clear that it was a small lighthouse. According to cost estimates prepared by the Surveyor General in 1873, a mere £35 (HK$168) was budgeted for a dioptric lamp for this lighthouse, versus the £3,300 (HK$15,840) sum set aside for the purchase of lights for the Cape d'Aguilar Lighthouse.

Some indications on the scale of these lighthouses can be gleaned from the construction cost figures, while the illumination distance range of the lighthouses reveals more information. The Cape d'Aguilar Lighthouse was situated at latitude 22° 12' 14” north and longitude 114° 15' 44" east. Standing 30 feet tall and with a focal plane of 200 feet above sea level, its light was visible in clear weather from a distance of 23

nautical miles. It would illuminate the islands of Nine Pins, Waglan Island, Lamma Island, Sung Kong Island and the waters near Lin Ding Island47. For the lighthouse on Green Island, its focal plane was 95 feet above sea level and a visibility distance of 14 miles48. The comparative figures for the Cape Collinson Lighthouse were 200 feet and 8 miles respectively49. Its beacon would provide illumination to vessels sailing east and north from Victoria Harbour and guide them clear of the reefs of the Tathong

Channel.

The Cape d'Aguilar Lighthouse was the first lighthouse erected by the government. It first exhibited its light on 16 April 187550. The Survey Department (formerly Surveyor General's Office) was responsible for the lighthouse construction projects, with the management placed in the hands of the Harbour Master's Office. The Green Island Lighthouse commenced operation on 1 July 187551. Due to a mistake in delivery, the construction materials required for the third lighthouse - Cape Collinson Lighthouse were sent to Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, instead. As a result, its commissioning was delayed until 1 March 18762. As for the originally planned Gap Rock Lighthouse,

Table 1.5 Lighthouse Construction Cost -

Cape d'Aguilar and Green Island

(unit: HK$)

Cape d'Aguilar Lighthouse

Green Island Lighthouse

Granite masonry tower

Timber wharf

3,300

Light Tower

1,500

Path

300

160

Keeper's dwelling including path and small landing place

1,000

Keeper's dwelling

Small breakwater

Total

10,240

1,000

15,000

Total

Source:

CO 129/167, "Governor to Earl of Kimberly, Principal Secretary of State", 11 March 1874.

the beacon beamed for the first time on 1 April 189253.

2,500

The British government declared Hong Kong a free trade port immediately after its occupation, as it sought to boost its status as an entrepôt. Restrained by a severe lack of resources, however, port development works could only progress at a slow pace. The lighthouse proposal was put forth towards the end of the 1850s, but it was not until March 1874 that it received the required government funding to proceed. The fact that it took more than 10 years before the first lighthouse went into operation in April 1875 vividly illustrates the difficulties facing port development. From this lighthouse saga, one also learns how harbour development was impeded by the sovereignty issue over the waters near Hong Kong Island.

Challenges for an Evolving City.

Chinese Community Demarcation

Challenges for an Evolving City

If port facility construction was a prerequisite for establishing an entrepôt, then the allocation and usage of land laid the foundations for the city's development.

In the mid-nineteenth century, to ensure sufficient land for the Europeans and business activity, the government restricted the areas used by Chinese residents on Hong Kong

Island.

Upper/Lower Bazaar and Tai Ping Shan

When the government formulated the land development policy in 1841, it deliberately used urban planning as a means of segregating Chinese from foreigners. Of the land parcels put up for auction on 14 June 1841, the government purposely designated the 268 Bazaar lots 118 Upper Bazaar lots of 504 square feet each (14 feet x 36 feet) and 150 Lower Bazaar lots each measuring 800 square feet (20 feet x 40 feet) - as Chinese residential areas. Chinese were allowed to erect matsheds or wooden huts as temporary

shelters. The government was in actual fact practising segregation of the Chinese from

the non-Chinese. Upper Bazaar referred to the area west of present-day Aberdeen Street and east of Hollywood Road, near Kau U Fong and Gough Street. Lower Bazaar was the stretch running from present-day Jervois Street to Bonham Strand.

The government's original plan did not envisage the large influx of Chinese spurred by increasing commercial activity and political turmoil in China. As Hong Kong consolidated its position as an entrepôt, most of the economic activity was concentrated in Central. Not surprisingly, land space in Central commanded a very high premium. The government departments located at Admiralty and Central, as well as the military barracks, already occupied a major part of the central district. The colonial government decided to alter the original plan and repossess Upper Bazaar, which had an area of approximately 1.5 acres and was situated right in the heart of the business district in Central. The space would then be turned into a European commercial zone, generating

BRA£42

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Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

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1.26 Pottinger Street in the late nineteenth century.

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1.29

1.27 Wellington Street in the late nineteenth century was lined with typical three-storey Chinese houses. The ground floor was for commercial use, with the second and third floors occupied as residences.

1.28 Distribution of shops in Bonham

Strand when a huge fire broke out at 10 pm on 28 December 1851. Gibb and Livingston Co is represented by No 1; the junction of Wellington Street, Queen's Road and Lower Bazaar Road by No 11; Lower Bazaar by No 12; and Queen's Road by No 13.

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1.29 A few weeks after the fire in Bonham Strand, the government proposed to widen the streets by reclamation. The dotted line marks the planned recla- mation area.

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

higher rent revenue for the government. A new district to accommodate the Chinese

population was planned for at Tai Pin Shan. It was to be sited around present-day Tai

Ping Shan Street, east of Possession Street and south of Queen's Road Central. It became the third Chinese residential area, after Upper and Lower bazaars.

At the end of 1843, Land Officer A. T. Gordon reauctioned the lots running from Bonham Strand to Gough Street54, including the Upper Bazaar lots. On 22 January 1844, 27 Upper Bazaar land parcels were successfully sold off to Europeans for commercial use. The Chinese living or working in Upper Bazaar were told to seek alternative arrangements55. Merchants and inhabitants were ordered to move out of the area within six months from January 184456.

The Chinese merchants were most upset that the government had reauctioned the lots in Upper Bazaar without their consent. After the reauction, Governor Henry Pottinger ordered Chief Magistrate Major William Caine, Registrar General Charles Gutzlaff and Land Officer A. T. Gordon to set up a committee to consider ways to accommodate the affected merchants. The government not only ignored completely

the interests of the affected Chinese lot owners, but also claimed that the title deeds issued by the first Land Officer, George F. Mylius, were only of a temporary nature. Public opinions strongly condemned the government's decision to force out the Chinese merchants from Upper Bazaar. The government was even labelled a bandit". Nonetheless, the government disregarded all opposition. On 25 July 1844, it gazetted an order for the businesses in Upper Bazaar to vacate their premises by September 1844. Consequently, Upper Bazaar became part of the business district reserved for the Europeans.

With no bargaining power, the Chinese merchants had to accept what was offered

by the government. They resettled in Tai Ping Shan lots 44 and 78 (approximately the area east of present-day Possession Street and west of Shing Wong Street). Government rent for those affected businesses was waived until January 1849, and they were each

given HK$40 as compensation58. Regarding monetary compensation, Governor Pottinger felt that businesses that were engaged in immoral activities such as gambling dens and brothels should not be compensated. Of the 112 households and businesses relocated, only 81 received the HK$40 compensation59. The government also outlaid HK$5,900 on site formation works in Tai Ping Shan.

From then on, the land around Tai Pin Shan Street and Lower Bazaar became a Chinese residential area. Chief Magistrate William Caine decreed that no Europeans, with the exception of police officers, were allowed to reside in a Chinese-populated

area.

First Reclamation - Bonham Strand

When comparing the 1843 map prepared by Land Officer A. T. Gordon with the 1856 map of the City of Victoria60, one finds that the Bonham Strand section, represented by Marine lots 83 to 89 near the Western Market area, shows clear signs of reclamation1.

On Wednesday, 28 December 1851, a huge fire broke out at around 10 pm in Lower Bazaar, near the present Jervois Street. The blaze raged until 5:30 am the next morning. This gave the impetus to the first reclamation project62 and also represented a milestone in the westward extension of the city centre. The fire started at Che-cheong Clothes shop at No 601 of Marine lot 16 a mere 150 feet from the warehouse owned by Gibb, Livingston & Co in Central. The blaze was burning most vigorously at around at 1 am on 29 December. It spread eastwards as far as the present-day intersection of Queen's Road Central, Jervois Street and Wellington Street, southwards to Queen's Road Central, westwards to the junction of Jervois Street and Morrison Street, and northwards to the Praya north of Jervois Street63. The fire-affected areas measured

Challenges for an Evolving City

189,792 square feet (approximately 4.4 acres) and initially it was estimated that it would reduce the annual government rent revenue by £8,375. In fact, the government

announced in 1852 that far fewer lots were affected. The damaged lots were: lots 1, 4, 6, 9, 11, 16, 17, 28, 32-35, 99, 102, 103, 117, 163, 180, 191,193 and 202. In the

end, it only required the waiving of £700 government rent64.

During the fire, in an attempt to prevent the flames from spreading to Central, the British Army and Royal Navy used 100 pounds of explosives to blow up the buildings to create a firebreak, causing the destruction of 450 civilian houses. Two military

Challenges for an Evolving City

源通

1.31

兰

1.32

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

officers Lt R. A. Tomkyns and Lt R. A. Lugg - died in the fire and quite a few soldiers were injured. In addition, 200 Chinese were reported missing. The blaze caused property damage in excess of £30,000. The excessive stockpiling of goods, closely-packed building structures, the lack of access to water and poor firefighting facilities, all contributed to the fire burning out of control65. The ravaged area sustained extensive damage and Lower Bazaar had to be rebuilt. Even before the fire, the government had expressed dissatisfaction with the sanitary conditions and the law and order situation that prevailed in the Tai Ping Shan Praya area inhabited by the Chinese. This blaze offered a golden opportunity to replan the Chinese community.

The Surveyor General, A. T. Gordon, drafted the first reclamation. plan for the reconstruction of Lower Bazaar. The initial work was to

determine the extent of reclamation at the Bonham Strand Praya. Reclamation

was to start at the intersection of present-day Wellington Street, Queen's

Road and Jervois Street, and end near the corner of Jervois Street and

Morrison Street. At Bonham Strand, works were to be extended northwards

towards the harbour, and a 50-foot wide road was to be constructed

along the Praya. It was estimated that this reclamation project would cost $25 per square yard. The bulk of the fill material was to come from the hills nearby, with construction waste from Tai Ping Shan contributing the rest. The government intended to auction off the reclaimed land.

Present owners of the Marine lots were liable for the construction cost

of piers and seawall as well as for part of the reclamation expenses. On the other hand, these owners would be allowed to charge fees for the use of their piers. Through the reclamation exercise, the government would be able to generate additional land revenue from the extra land produced.

As most of the Bonham Strand lots were leased to Chinese, a

quick resolution was achieved on the ownership issue concerning the lots along the shore. The Europeans only owned lots 1 and 4 (Gibb, Livingston & Co), 6 (G. J. Mornson) and 191 (L. M. S. Chapel). It was

1.30 The junction of

Bonham Strand

and Queen's Road

in the 1910s, where

a destinative fire

broke out in 1851.

Bonham Strand, which was com- pleted in the 1950s, was the frist

street built on

reclaimed land.

It became a trad-

ing centre among the

Chinese population.

Bonham Strand is

on the right and on

the left is Queen's

Road.

1.31 The bustling Clev-

erly Street, east of Bonham Strand, in

the 1930s.

1.32 Bonham Strand,

decorated to cel-

ebrate the Silver

Jubilee of the

Reign of King George V in May

1935.

1.30

Embryonic City

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

1.33 Many local banks and medicinal herb and ginseng shops and businesses were set up in Bonham Strand in 1910s.

easier for the government to reach agreement with the lot owners. In addition, since most of the leases were due to expire within the next two or three years, the present

lessees were unwilling to make substantial investments on their lots. Neither did they have a valid reason to object to reclamation after the expiry of the leases". From the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth century, the reclaimed land - given the street name of Bonham Strand - was used by the Chinese as the trading centre for gold and silver. The Gold and Silver Exchange Company, established in 1910, moved to

No 52 Bonham Strand in 1933.

The Bonham Strand project provided valuable lessons for future reclamation works. In the 1850s, the government did not realise that the reactions of the existing Marine lot holders towards the ownership rights of reclaimed lots would become the biggest hindrance to reclamation. After the Bonham Strand reclamation, the government proposed the ambitious Bowring and Central reclamation projects in its endeavours to

enhance land resources.

Thwarted Reclamation Schemes

While the Bonham Strand reclamation was proceeding smoothly, the administration tried to apply the reclamation method used in the Chinese community to the Central and Wan Chai areas. In 1856, the government planned to carry out a Praya extension north of Government Hill, for a length of four miles and a width of 50 feet. The reclamation was to extend eastwards to East Point, with public piers to be constructed on the reclaimed land in Central. The new reclamation scheme was initiated during the governorship of John Bowring and was given the name of Bowring Praya. On 25 February 1856, select committee was set up. Its members included: Thomas Chisholm Anstey, the Attorney General; William Cowper, an engineer; and Julius Charles Power, the Acting Surveyor General. The committee conducted public consultations and solicited views from all sectors of the community, with the goal of clarifying the following issues: 1. Should the government be responsible for all the Praya reclamation works?

2. Upon the completion of reclamation, how much government rent would the present

holders of Marine lots have to pay for the use of the new lots?

3. If the existing lot owners did not wish to bear the cost of reclamation, should the government meet the cost instead? Would the government allow those owners who were willing to contribute, to carry out the expansion work that was related to their lots themselves?

4. Should the Bonham Strand reclamation be included as part of the Praya reclamation

project?

Challenges for an Evolving City.

5. How should the rules governing the loading and unloading of goods and the embarking

and disembarking of passengers along the Praya be determined, once the reclamation works were completed67?

Challenges for an Evolving City

TOL

PLAN

VICTORIA

PRESENT SEA WALL 70 BE REPAIRED COLOURED RED.:.

PROPOSED NEW PERMANENT WALL COLOURED YELLOW

MARINE LOT HOLDERS PROPOSED RECLAMATIONS COLOURED GREEN -

RECLAMATION BEHIND NAVAL AND

MILITARY PREMISES REFERRED TO

IN PARAGRAPH I COLOURED PURPLE —

$CALL

+} {NCH

“HAYALE DRITARY WATER FRONTAGE

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Wanginalchung Tailey.

1.34 The 1875 blueprint for the Praya works. Subsequent to the destructive typhoon of 1874, the

government proposed a comprehensive repair and reclamation plan.

Although the responses gathered by the committee failed to clear up all the doubts of the government, they did spell out the views of society concerning the reclamation plan. The committee identified two issues, in regard to which the public had reached

consensus.

1. The government should oversee all aspects of the reclamation works and implement

measures to address the sanitation, environment, and law and order concerns. The

Surveyor General was to assume responsibility for the satisfactory progress and

completion of the project.

2. The Crown should have absolute beneficial ownership of the reclaimed land.

The strongest opposition to the reclamation came from the purchasers of the Marine lots. When the first land auction was held on 14 June 1841, as the sea lots had

different depths and were irregularly shaped, the government only made approxinate

determinations of the coastal boundaries and allowed the allottees to undertake construction

works based on the actual circumstances. That meant the Marine lots sold on 14 June

1841 did not have clearly defined boundaries. Many of the allottees carried out their own reclamation, under the pretence of performing corrective work to their lots 68. When the second land auction was planned, Governor Pottinger proclaimed on 22 March 1842 that all reclaimed land along the Praya was the Crown's property. This

announcement settled the ownership issue of land reclaimed from the sea. Unfortunately, the ruling made on 22 March 1842 had no retrospective effect on the lots sold at the 14 June 1841 auction. The administration was unable to resume the ownership of the

newly reclaimed land; nor could it charge government rent for its use. On 4 March

1844, Governor Pottinger offered to reduce rent on the land reclaimed by the lessees as an incentive to obtain declarations from the lot owners the size of the added land.

When the Bowring Praya plan was announced, the firm Dent & Co, which had Marine lots 3 and 4 under lease, declared that it was fully aware of the exact demarcation of those lots when they were acquired on 14 June 1841. It made clear its intention not

to increase the land area but would assert its rights to those Marine lots.

The Bowring Praya scheme came under severe criticism on 4 February 1859 from the taipan of Dent & Co, John Dent, who was also a Legislative Councillor. The four major issues were:

1. The proposed reclamation works would infringe on the boundaries of the existing Praya. After the reclamation, the original Marine lots no longer had sea frontages.

2. The implementation of the Bowring Praya scheme would plunge the government into severe financial difficulties. According to government estimates, the project would cost £19,000. Between 1858 and 1859, the government only applied for a loan of £4,000 from the British government to finance such works. During that year, it already borrowed from Britain of £10,000 for the construction of a gaol and a hospital. Additional borrowings would have to be made. The Hong Kong government simply could not afford the Bowring plan financially. As for Britain, it was under no obligation to provide unlimited funding for Hong Kong's infrastructure on a long-term basis.

3. The Bowring Praya project cost had been underestimated. According to government notification No 178 of 1858, the estimated cost of the scheme amounted to

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 - 1883)

1.35

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

£19,000. This sum was far lower than the figure of £87,648 provided by the Surveyor General, who did not include support facilities such as the construction of a 0.75- square-mile parade ground east of the military hospital. In all, the scheme's total expenditure would exceed £112,000.

4. The main entrances of all the major trading houses were located on Queen's Road, with the kitchens and stables positioned on the Praya side. After the proposed reclamation, all these ancillary facilities would be located along the major thoroughfare, which

was not a pleasant sight.

The complaint lodged by John Dent against the Bowring Praya, which was

intended to run from Wong Nei Chung to Navy Bay, was accepted by the Legislative

Council on 5 February 1859. On the same day, an official announcement was made to suspend the reclamation proposal indefinitely70.

Not only was the Bowring Praya project too ambitious and too expensive, but it also directly threatened the interests of the private sector. The European business magnates, who were also members of the Legislative Council, made full use of their financial clout and influence to express to the British government their vehement opposition to the plan. Desperately short of funds, the administration was not in a position to implement the project on its own. Permission was withheld on the Central - Wan Chai reclamation and the project was delayed for 40 years.

Despite the setback to the Bowring Praya project, the authorities remained

adamant in its determination to augment public space through reclamation. In 1866, it revived the Central reclamation project, proposing to move the Harbour Master's Office westwards and use the site to build the Town Hall". Public piers were to be constructed along the waterfront near the Harbour Master's Pier for the handling of goods and the embarking and disembarking of passengers. As there was a military

barracks 3,250 feet east of the Harbour Master's Office, the government needed to

1.36

1.37

1.35 A view of the Wan Chai Praya in the 1870s. In the centre, jutting out into the harbour is the 1000-feet-long pier owned by the Hong Kong Pier & Godown Co. On the left is the Hospital Hill, named after the Sailors' Hospital that was founded in 1843. In 1873, the hospital came under the direction of the Royal Navy and changed its name to Royal Naval Hospital.

1.36 Victoria Harbour at the end of the nineteenth century.

1.37 Victoria Barracks (the present-day Arsenal Street area) in the second half of the nineteenth century. It consisted of five military compounds. The Wan Chai Praya is to its left, with Hospital Hill (with a large building at the top of the hill) in the background.

Challenges for an Evolving City

1.38

1.39

W.O.T

1.38 The bustling Bonham Strand West, decorated to mark the visit of the Duke of Edinburgh at the end of 1860s.

1.39 View along Morrison Street in the 1880s, showing

the shops fronting Bonham Strand West.

1.40 In the 1868 Bonham Strand West reclamation, the Pierre-perdue method was adopted for seawall construction. It is similar to the present-day method of constructing a vertical seawall.

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1.40

Challenges for an Evolving City

redevelop the site currently occupied by Fletcher's Building of the War Department into piers, and to expand the existing Praya. The military felt that the plan was an infringement of its property rights, and that having public facilities erected so close to military installations posed security risks. So it refused to sanction the proposal72.

Neither the Bowring Praya scheme nor the Central reclamation project was approved. This illustrates that, apart from adequate funding, the attitudes of the military

and the private enterprises also had a decisive influence on the city's development in

the 1860s.

Although the government's ambitious efforts to expand the city core were thwarted, by 1866 the City of Victoria began to assume the shape of a modern city. It was divided into nine districts: Shek Tong Tsui, Sai Ying Pun, Tai Ping Shan, Sheung Wan, Chong Wan and Chong Wan North, Ha Wan, Wan Chai, Bowrington and So Kong Po13. The

city was steadily expanding eastwards and westwards despite numerous impediments.

Sheung Wan - Western District Reclamation

In 1860 the government began to expand the Chinese area from Bonham Strand in Sheung Wan to Western District. On 1 March 1860, it unveiled the Western District

expansion blueprint and proposed to extend the boundaries of the Chinese community

westwards to Centre Street, and southwards to Bonham Road. A street that ran from

east to west - Second Street - was to be built between Eastern Street, Centre Street,

Queen's Road and Bonham Road. This expansion project was estimated to cost £63174.

The completion of the Bonham Strand reclamation in the 1850s resulted in the

construction of Bonham Strand. In 1868, the government planned to build Bonham Strand West through reclamation by a westward extension from the junction of Bonham Strand and No 37A of Morrison Street. The project's budget of HK$68,700 was approved

in the same year and funding was allocated in the 1868 fiscal year. The existing landholders were responsible for the cost of the expansion works on their lots, but they were also granted the rights to use the reclaimed land. As a result, the government only needed to spend £4,915 (HK$23,592) on this reclamation". In 1868, the Nam Pak Hong Commercial Association was set up in Bonham Strand West", giving rise to its other name, Nam Pak Hong Street. Towards the end of the 1860s, most of the Chaozhou and Shantou merchants who were involved in the Hong Kong, Thailand, Singapore and Shantou trade congregated in that street. Most of the businesses there were Nam Pak Hong merchants engaged in the selling and trading of Chinese medicinal herbs and ginseng. There were also jinshanzhuang (firms conducting trade, remittance and visa applications with Chinese living in North America) and yinhao (Chinese native banks), in decreasing numbers 78.

The plan for the 1868 Bonham Strand West project spelled out the reclamation technology to be used and its architectural characteristics. The stress was on the ability of the seawall to withstand typhoon conditions and the Pierre-perdue method was adopted for the new seawall. It was similar to the current method used for constructing a vertical seawall. The seaward side of the seawall foundation had a gradient of 2:1, while that at the landward side had a gradient of 1:1. Large stones, each measuring not less than eight cubic feet, were used to build the foundations, with the interstices filled in with. rubble. The stonework above the seawall footings was constructed of ashlar masonry. To ensure the strength and durability of the new seawall, the masonry was set in cement mortar in place of pure cement. No lime was allowed to be used in any part of the work". The fill material required for reclamation was taken from the hill below Hospital Road. The Bonham Strand West reclamation utilised the basic concept of levelling mountains and reclaiming land from the sea and the Pierre-perdue method in seawall construction. This project served as a model for future reclamation works in the territory.

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 - 1883)

Challenges for an Evolving City

SLAUGHTER HOUSE

BELCHERS POINT

DISTRICT No 1. SHEKTONCTUS!

TO BE RECLAIMED

PRAYA

DISTRICT No 2 SEI YING POON PRAYA

PLAUERTEN

MOUSE

PLAN OF THE

CITY OF VICTORIA

PRAYA

DISTRICT NO 4.

DISTRICT NO

PRAYA

DISTRICT No 5 CHOONG WAN

CERCH

PARADE

DISTRICT NO 6 HA WAN

PIER

CAUSEWAY

BAY

CERE

JOSH MONEL

DISTRICT N° 7. WANG NAI

DISTRICT #o 8. BOWRINOTOR

DISTRICT N° 9. Sockur Poo

~^VRINCHAI

WORGNE CHONG VALLEY

1.41 In the early 1880s, the City of Victoria was divided into nine districts: Shek Tong Tsui, Sai Ying Pun, Tai Ping Shan, Sheung Wan, Chong Wan and Chong Wan North, Ha Wan, Wan Chai, Bowrington and So Kong Po. The shaded parts represent proposed reclamation areas in the wake of the 1874 destructive typhoon.

Table 1.6 Chinese Community Praya Works (1844-1882)

Between 1870 and 1875, the government aggressively created land in Western District, with reclamation works stretching as far as Belcher's Street north. After years of reclamation, the road north of Queen's Road West, then known as the Praya but later renamed Des Voeux Road West, was largely finished80. In 1874, Hong Kong came under the onslaught of a typhoon, causing massive damage along the Praya. Thus, the administration proposed in 1875 to repair the seawalls along the coastal Marine lots, stretching eastwards from Hill Road in Western District to So Kong Po, and also to carry out reclamation in the near-shore area around Eastern Street and Western Street. Again, the project could not be fully implemented due to insufficient

funding.

1852

Year

Work Item

Expenditure (£)

Lower Bazaar seawall and stairs

1853-1854

Lower Bazaar seawall

163

1859-1861

Lowe Bazaar Praya

2,429

1864-1866

Causeway Bay reclamation

9,893

1869

Bowrington reclamation

# 2,083

1868-1871

Construction - Bonham Strand seawall

4,915

1875

Wan Chai reclamation

703

1878

Lap Sap Wan reclamation

Total

*591

20,799

1869 budgeted expenditure

Chinese Community Praya Works

Capital expenditure by the colonial government in the Chinese community was minimal before 1859. Apart from the sum of £1,343 (approximately HK$5,900) expended in 1844 on site formation works in Tai Ping Shan, only drain repairs, costing well below £100, were carried out occasionally. This reflected the unimportance of the Chinese community in the eyes of the government. During the period 1844-1882, a total of £20,799 was expended on the section of the Praya in the Chinese community. Of this sum, only £2,429 was related to Praya construction works - a mere 12 per cent

of the total. As for the Bonham Strand reclamation undertaken in the 1850s, information

on cost and other details was unavailable. Thus very little is known about the first reclamation. One thing is certain however: the street Bonham Strand, built during the first phase of the Bonham Strand reclamation, was completed before 1868. In 1868,

The original records were in Hong Kong dollars. To facilitate analysis, the British pound sterling is

adopted, using the 1881 rate of £1 = HK$5.334.

Source:

the government planned to carry out the second phase of the reclamation: to extend

westwards from Bonham Strand and build the now Bonham Strand West. Table 1.6

lists the 1868-1871 expenditure on the Bonham Strand seawall, which was part of the phase two reclamation plan. The construction sum was enormous at £4,915 (HK$23,952), relative to the sums spent in the past on the Chinese community. Obviously the seawall

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 - 1883)

1.42

1.43

1.44

1.42 Sheung Wan in the 1880s. The

photograph shows overcrowded houses in a densely populated Chi- nese residential area. Po Yan Street could be seen in the middle, leading to Hollywood Road at the end. The large area of open space in the left of the photograph is Pos- session Point, with Tung Wah Hos- pital across the street.

1.43 The gas works at Hill Road, Shek Tong Tsui, was the starting loca- tion for the Praya Reclamation Scheme. Reclamation works be-

gan in 1889 and finished in 1903.

1.44 The first public hospital, Govern- ment Civil Hospital, was located on Queen's Road West in 1874.

Summary

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

1.45 Eastern Street was a popular Chinese residential area at the end of the nineteenth century, lined with Chinese houses.

works undertaken was far more extensive from those carried out previously. In 1852, a pitiful sum of £22 was spent on seawall related works. (Refer to Table 1.6 for details of works carried out in the Chinese community)

To demonstrate its commitment towards reclamation, the government undertook a series of minor reclamations between 1864 and 1878. They included: Causeway Bay (1864-1866), cost £9,893 (HK$47,486) 82; Bowrington (1869), cost- £2,083 (HK$9,998); Wan Chai (1875), cost - £703 (HK$3,374)83; and Lap Sap Wan (1878), cost - £591 ($3,152). The northern shore of Hong Kong Island gradually took the shape of a modern city after a sustained period of construction, repair and maintenance

works.

Hong Kong Island was scarce in land resource and vulnerable to typhoon attacks. These factors, coupled with the circumstance that military considerations dictated the establishment of the city nucleus on the less felicitous north shore of the island, meant

that the colonial government had to make extra efforts to develop Hong Kong. In 1842, the Land Office was established and put in charge of land use planning. The Surveyor General took office in 1844 and assumed responsibilities for the city's planning and building works. Such measures illustrated the government's determination to develop the City of Victoria. The Surveyor General's Office was the forerunner of all the works departments. It was largely responsible for the planning, execution and oversight of the development of Victoria Harbour. Shackled by limited resources, little progress was made between 1841 and 1883 on port and land development. The City of Victoria was the focus of infrastructural activity, with very limited development works undertaken in other parts of the island. Initially, construction works centred on road building and erection government building structures. The government began by constructing piers and cargo loading and unloading areas along the north shore, building and maintaining seawalls, and reinforcing the Praya against high winds and pounding waves. Such works were performed to protect the trading vessels. As Victoria Harbour was a well- endowed natural harbour, capable of receiving the largest vessels of the time, the provision of port facilities such as piers, seawalls and lighthouses did not involve large capital expenditure. The period of the 1850s and 1860s was characterised by small-scale port

development works. In the 1870s, the pace of development slowed. On the other hand, maintenance and reconstruction works grew in importance, as Hong Kong often had to endure the onslaughts of typhoons.

When the government conducted the first public auction in 1841, covering land parcels stretching from Ha Wan in the east to Sheung Wan in the west, it basically demarcated the boundaries of the City of Victoria. Back in 1841, the now Gough Street and Hollywood Road area, then known as Upper Bazaar, and the Bonham Strand Praya

Challenges for an Evolving City

Table 1.7 Population Distribution-Hong Kong (1841-1881)

Table 1.8 Non-European Population Statistics-City of Vctoria

Year

Population-City of Victoria

Population-Boats

1841

800 (11%)

1851

16,958 (51%)

2,000 (27%)

10,178 (31%)

Population- Villages

4,350 (58%)

5,234 (16%)

Others

Total Population

1841

1844

1858

1859

1860

1861

300(4%)

7,450(100%)

Upper/Lower Bazaar

800

5,783

Tai Ping Shan

11,599 13,549 15,782 17,828

613 (2%)

1861

68,910 (58%)

30,909 (26%)

11,215 (9%)

8,287 (7%)

32,983(100%)

119,321(100%)

Chong Wan

11,434 10,428

10,585 15,875

Sheung Wan

6,626

7,449

8,337 9,549

1871

80,824 (65%)

23,709 (19%)

10,507 (9%)

9,158 (7%)

124,198(100%)

Sai Ying Pun

4,618

4,989

7,515

19,123

1881

106,393 (67%)

28,989 (18%)

16,606 (10%)

8,414 (5%)

160,402(100%)

Shek Tong Tsui

727

662

1,925

Ha Wan

Sources:

4,861

5,581

6,072 6,641

Chinese Repository, Vol X, No 5, The Hong Kong Gazette, May 1841, p. 289.

"Return of the Population and of the Marriages, Births and Deaths", Hong Kong Blue Book, Hong Kong,

Noronha & Co, 1851, 1861, 1871.

"Census Returns of the Population of the Colony on 3 April 1881", The Hong Kong Government Gazette,

Hong Kong Government, 8 June 1881.

So kong Po

2,601

2,020

2,373 2,583

Wong Nei Chung

333

374

327

359

Sources:

Part Birth of the City of Victoria (1843 1883)

in Sheung Wan, called Lower Bazaar at that time, were designated as localities reserved for the Chinese community. To cope with the booming economic activity in Central and a rapidly growing Chinese population, the government relocated the Chinese population from Upper Bazaar to Tai Ping Shan in 1844, thus making Sheung Wan a Chinese- populated district. Within such an overcrowded locality, hygiene and public order problems were bound to occur. The fire that broke out on 28 December 1851 acted as a catalyst, prompting the adoption of reclamation by the government. With no disputes over the ownership of land along the Praya, the government was able to realise its ambition of levelling mountains and reclaiming land from the sea. It made history with the completion of the first reclamation along the northern waterfront of the island.

—

With increasing reclamation activity in the 1850s, the boundaries of the City of Victoria were extending eastwards and westwards on the north shore. In 1858, the city was made up of eight districts: Shek Tong Tsui, Sai Ying Pun, Tai Ping Shan, Sheung Wan, Chong Wan, Ha Wan, Wong Nei Chung and So Kong Po84. In 1866, the district of Wong Nei Chung was subdivided into Bowrington and Wan Chai - increasing the number of districts to nine. Most of the population resided within the City of Victoria. According to the 1841 Chinese Repository, an estimated 7,450 people lived in Hong Kong that year, of which 2,000 lived on boats and another 4,350 were scattered around the coastal villages. Between 1851 and 1881, the number of people residing inside the City of Victoria burgeoned to encompass between 51 per cent and 67 per cent of the total population. More people were now living in the City of Victoria than in villages or on boats, and the trend was accelerating.

Chinese Repository Volume X, No 5, The Hong Kong Gazette, 1841 May, p.289. "Return of the Population and of the Marriages, Births and Deaths ", Hong Kong Blue Book, Hong Kong,

Noronha & Co, 1844, 1858-1861.

In the mid-nineteenth century, with a dearth of resources at its disposal, the government at times relied on private sector initiatives in port development. The building of piers and warehouses by foreign businesses, enhanced by substantial Crown rent receipts from the Marine lots, had successfully transformed the area around Central into a British-like small town. In situations where the interests of private enterprises clashed with those of the government's, the development plans were met with intense opposition. Since the 1860s, the government had had a grand plan in mind, hoping to undertake large-scale reclamation works along the Praya in Central upon the completion of the Bonham Strand reclamation. It had hoped to boost the development potential of the areas around Central and Wan Chai. Unfortunately, such ambition was thwarted

by stiff resistance from the foreign businesses and the British military. These enterprises

held the lots along the Praya and were worried that their land rights would be adversely

affected by the new reclamation. Their other concerns were that they could be charged higher land rent, as well as being required to bear the land construction cost. The British military was concerned that increased human activities along the shore could

compromise national security. Yielding to pressures from various quarters, the Central Wan Chai project was shelved. Until the late 1880s, the government proved unable

to win consent for the reclamation from the various vested interest groups. This considerably

slowed down the city's development. For the city to embark on a new course of development,

all three elements had to meet in harmony - timeliness, amenable locations and harmonious

human relations. None could be absent.

1883-1945

Expansion of the City Nucleus

1. Large Scale Reclamation in the City of Victoria

Praya Reclamation Scheme - Western District to Central

Praya East Reclamation Scheme

2. Development of the Kowloon Peninsula

Kowloon Peninsula Reclamation

Kowloon Tong Garden City Plan

Large-Scale Reclamation in the City of Victoria

3. Maintenance of Port Facilities

Fairway Dredging

Typhoon Shelter Construction

4. Transport Hubs

Large Piers

Kowloon Canton Railway

Airport Reclamation

5. Wartime Hong Kong

6. Summary

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

ALSE

Since 1841, Hong Kong's population had been increasing at a rapid rate. During the period 1881-1939, more than 42 per cent of the total population resided within the

City of Victoria, reaching a high of 72 per cent in 1881 (Table 2.1). For the government, the high population density and hygienic problems in Sheung Wan were the most pressing problems in the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries. The only way to

boost usable land along the north shore of the island in order to meet the city's development

needs was by reclamation. Between 1883 and 1945, the following reclamation works

were carried out by the government to expand the nucleus of the city: on northern Hong Kong Island from Western District to North Point, on the eastern and western shores of the Kowloon Peninsula, as well as at its southern end.

In 1883, the department responsible for all infrastructural and reclamation works in Hong Kong, the Survey Department, was restructured and became the Public Works Department. The Surveyor General was retitled Director of Public Works in 1891. In 1891, the Public Works Department consisted of seven administrative units: Staff, Inspection

of Buildings, Praya Reclamation, Public Works, Public Recurrent, Land Survey Branch and Squatters. The port development and reclamation works came within the ambit of the Praya Reclamation and Public Works units. The Praya Reclamation Division was the first unit in Hong Kong in charge of port development works, while the Public Works Division was the first government agency with responsibility for other infrastructural projects not covered by the Praya Reclamation Division. By 1924, the number of

works divisions of the Public Works Department grew to eight: General Works, Administration

of the Buildings Ordinance, Architecture, Drainage, Electrical, Roads, Waterworks

and Port Development. The Port Development Division, established on 14 August 1924,

took over the work of the Praya Reclamation Division. It was also responsible for the building and maintenance of public sewerage systems and piers, seawalls and other harbour works, in addition to the oversight of private sector port projects. In 1929, more offices were added to the Public Works Department: Administrative Staff and

Table 2.1 Hong Kong Population Statistics (1881-1939)

Year

Total Hong Kong Population

City of Victoria Population

As Percentage of

Total Population

1881

160,402

114,619

71.5%

1891

221,441

156,863

70.8%

1901

283,975

175,056

61.6%

1911

456,739

217,668

47.7%

1921

625,166

312,388

50.0%

1931

840,473

356,058

42.4%

1939

1,050,256

450,294

42.9%

Sources:

2.1

Before 1889, the Praya was 30 feet wide. It was widened to 75 feet following reclamation.

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

Challenges for an Evolving City

"Report on the Census of the Colony for 1901", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha &

Co, 1901, No 39/1901.

"Report on the Census of the Colony for 1911", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha &

Co, 1911, No 17/1911.

"Report on the Census of the Colony for 1921", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha &

Co, 1921, No 15/1921.

"Report on the Census of the Colony, Hong Kong, 1931”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong,

Noronha & Co, 1931, No 5/1931.

"Return of the Population and of the Marriage, Births and Deaths”, Hong Kong Blue Book, Hong Kong,

Noronha & Co, 1881.

Hara Gau Kou, Honkon suidou chousa houkokusho (Investigative Report on Hong Kong's Waterworks),

Taiwan soutokufu gaijibu, October 1942, p. 7.

Correspondence; Crown Lands; Surveys; Valuation and Resumption; and Accounts and Stores. The Port Development Division evolved into the Port Works Division (the name "Port Works" has been in use ever since). The Electrical Office was renamed the

Electrical and Wireless Telegraphy Office; the Architecture Office was restructured

into the Architectural and Maintenance of Buildings Office; the Roads Office became the Roads and Transport Office; The Waterworks Office was split into two: the Construction

of Waterworks and the Maintenance of Waterworks. The organisation structure of the Public Works Department that was in place in 1929 remained largely intact until 1941, just prior to the occupation by the Japanese invading forces. After the war, the Public Works Department underwent several reorganisations and has now become the Environment, Transport and Works Bureau85.

Praya Reclamation Scheme Western District to Central

As early as the mid-1850s, a Central reclamation plan was put forth by the government. In 1875, after the havoc wreaked by the powerful typhoon in the previous year, plans were initiated to carry out large-scale reclamation in Western District. Due to funding shortages and disputes with the existing Marine lot holders and the military over land rights along the Praya, the plans were not sanctioned. After a 30-year hiatus, the Praya Reclamation Scheme was revived by the taipan of Hong Kong and Kowloon

Wharf and Godown Co, Paul Chater, on 13 July 1887. Consensus was reached between the government and the business sector, and the largest reclamation project since the middle of the nineteenth century was allowed to proceed. The reclamation works extended westwards to the gas works of Hong Kong and China Gas Co Ltd at West Point and eastwards to Murray Pier in Central. The reclamation covered a distance of 3,400 yards (10,200 feet), with a width of 250 feet, yielding an area of 58.7 acres. Upon completion, there was to be a minimum average depth of 20 feet of water along the seawall after reclamation.

The plan proposed by Paul Chater accorded closely with society's needs at the time. In the 1880s, the seabed along the northern shore of Hong Kong Island was silted up by sediments from the Pearl River Delta. At low tide in spring, the shallowest part of the harbour had a depth of less than 20 feet. With ever larger ocean-going vessels entering service, the very large ships could no longer moor in the waters off the northern coast. Reclamation along the northern coastline would help resolve the berthing problem for the ocean vessels, and the land gained from reclamations would relieve pressure generated by the rising influx of immigrants in the late nineteenth century. According to the then Surveyor General, J. M. Price, Hong Kong had a net population increase of 1,500 persons in 1873; that figure jumped to 8,000 in 1887. Large areas of flat land were required on Hong Kong Island to meet the pressing housing needs86.

Of the 58.7 acres of land created by the Praya Reclamation Scheme (from Western District to Central), approximately 5.5 acres was reserved for government use; the remaining 53.2 acres was held by the existing Marine lot holders, 27 acres of which was dedicated to the building of roads and streets, with the balance of 26.2 acres made available for commercial and residential developments. An estimated 1,320 tenements were to be built to house 39,000 people. Based on the net population increase of 7,000-8,000 people in 1887, the reclaimed area would be sufficient to meet the additional housing requirements for the next five years87. This would ameliorate

Table 2.2 Praya Reclamation Scheme - Estimated Reclamation Areas (1888)

Development Undertaken by Private Sector

Development Undertaken

First Second Third Fourth Fifth Section Section Section Section Section

Sixth Section

Seventh Section

Total

Government

Area

(sq ft)

197,707

114,080

197,865

50,605

155,021

240,233

185,033

2.2

A view of Central after

completion of the Praya

Lot No

Reclamation Scheme in

1903.

184-191, 81, 90-94,

198-199, 106

204-205

37, 57-58,

68-69,

71,200

35, 225,

227,

232-238

21-22, 38-39,

41, 44-51, 63,

59-61, 73-80,

206-224

10, 10A, 10B,

12-15, 18, 53A,

53-56, 62, 63A, 66,99-100

2A, 2B, 2C,

1,140,544 [(about 26.2 acres)

5.5 acres

about

7, 102-104

Sources:

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

Challenges for an Evolving City

the overcrowded districts of Western and Central and improve the sanitary conditions.

The fact that Paul Chater was able to garner widespread support for his plan was partly attributed to the plan's economic and technical feasibility, in addition to its ability to meet the pressing needs of society. The advantages of the plan included:

1. Low construction cost - As most of the construction cost was to be borne by the

existing Marine lot owners, the government only needed to be responsible for the reclamation cost of the areas adjacent to government properties: the areas extending northwards from the Cricket Ground, the City Hall, the Central Market, the Harbour Master's Office and the area opposite Marine lot 63 - approximately 5.5 acres of land. According to Paul Chater's estimated construction cost of HK$2 per square

foot, it would only cost the government around HK$480,000.

2. High investment return - It was estimated that the achievable price at the auctions would not be less than $4 per square foot, and the larger lots could be worth up to $12-15 per square foot. For the reclaimed land opposite the government properties in Central, the government could generate a net profit of not less then HK$1.5 million,

not to mention an annual revenue of HK$25,000 in Crown rent and HK$60,000 in

rates and other charges.

3. Reclamation expertise The government could apply the Pierre-perdue method, used between 1865 and 1868 in the vicinity of Wing Lok Street, Sheung Wan, and

in the 1868-1870 Bonham Strand West reclamation, to build a section of the Praya

wall. For more than 20 years, the seawall had stood up well against the harshest elements. This shows that by the 1870s, Hong Kong already possessed advanced reclamation expertise. Also, as the whole project was to be co-ordinated by the Public Works Department, close monitoring of the quality and progress of the works

was possible.

Despite its advantages, the Paul Chater's plan was not accepted without dissent. In July 1887, when the government consulted the owners of the Marine lots concerning

"Praya Reclamation Scheme", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1889, pp. 23-30. "Report on the Operation of the Public Works for the Year 1890", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1891,

No 13/91.

"Report of the Director of Public Works”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1893-1903. "Surveyor General's Department Report for the Year 1891", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1892, No 2/

92, p. 116.

the reclamation details, it encountered opposition from the Hong Kong and China Gas Co Ltd, which had its gas works at West Point. The manager of the company, F. W. Cross, believed that the reclamation cost of HK$2 per square foot was arrived at without performing detailed evaluation of engineering difficulties and material requirements.

As a result, the Marine lot owners in Western District would have to subsidise the lots

in Central, as the reclamation cost was likely to be much lower in Western District. Upon completion, the land lots in Central would be far more valuable than those in

Western District, yet the government did not take into account the differences in land values when setting the Crown rent on the reclaimed lots. Hong Kong and China Gas thus proposed that the reclamation scheme be divided into sections for construction

cost computations; cost apportionment and Crown rent were to be determined on the

basis of the level of construction difficulties and the characteristics of the areas88.

On 1 June 1888, the government completed the public consultation exercise on the reclamation scheme that started from the gas works at West Point to Murray Pier in Central. A report was submitted by the Surveyor General to the Colonial Secretary on the revised reclamation scheme. The plan called for the construction of a new Praya wall 3,400 yards long running almost parallel to the existing northern coastline at a distance of 250 feet from the shore along 20 feet of water. The government would be responsible for the building of 600 yards of the Praya wall, with the existing Marine lot owners assuming responsibility for the construction of the remaining 2,800 yards. Of the 250-foot width, 160 feet was allocated for the erection of building structures. Upon completion, the width of the existing Praya would increase to 75 feet. Of that, 65 feet was reserved for traffic use, and cargo landing and embarking, while building

1889

Table 2.3 Praya Reclamation Scheme-Expenditure and Valuation (1889-1903)

First Section

Second Section

Expenditure by Private Sector

Third Fourth Fifth

Sixth Seventh Section Section Section Section Section

(unit: HK$)

2.3

Exp. by Govt.

Total

Estimated

1.89

2.72

1.73

3.02

1.74

1.83

1.36

construction cost per sq ft

Total

Assessed value per sq ft

374,232

310,854 345,233 153,044 270,690 440,315 251,860 2,146,228

362,369 | 2,508,597

A scene of the bustling Western Market. By

1939, there were 450,000 people residing in the City of Victoria.

2.4

The Praya, Central, before the commencement of large-scale reclamation in 1889.

7&10

8&10

Total

790,828

570,400 1,385,055

354,235 1,121,147 | 2,208,892 1,480,264 7,910,821 | 1,803,956 | 9,714,777

Actual Expenditure

1890 (private)

7,128

55,888

6,051

3,114

5,004

7,877

21,788 106,850

(government)

444

1,418

1891 (private)

42,019

34,580

65,662

6,553

9,188

755

14,631

32,305

34,922 141,772

31,817 204,450

(government)

814

2,520

1,400 48,472

53,206 257,656

1892 (private)

43,792

49,613

112,574

7,020

14,215

27,669

77,925 332,808

(government)

1,260

4,213

2,120 111,087

118,680 451,488

1893 (private)

24,985

35,455

33,076

1,822

3,428

5,666

(government)

304

1,003

1894 (private)

46,758

36,246

31,594

7,064

14,170

(government)

234

774

1895 (private)

63,318

6,202

36,698

55,692

8,671

(government)

9,727

1,698

1896 (private)

14,087

5,755

48,600

(government)

545

53,029

637

57,374

1,036

29,767

1,542

9,601 114,033

12,473

14,325 128,358

51,701 240,562

10,157

11,802

252,364

44,549 272,504

5,710

18,171 290,675

1897 (private)

24,596

11,706

43,961

(government)

1898 (private)

20,930 10,903

25,031

(government)

8,161

39,144 63,670

5,464 16,859

11,964 62,781 50,382 27,919 233,309

3,290 18,516 3,337 3,393

31,947 49,059 52,328 -15,716 174,482

5,661 -1,373

1,095 3,005

27,310 228,333

12,955

2.3

36,820 265,153

28,536 261,845

16,549 191,031

1899

NA 229,651

1900

ΝΑ

150,650

1901

91,772

1902

ΝΑ

110,708

1903

ΝΑ

72,708

2,895,831

20,932

Annual

Crown rent

3,630

2,092

3,632

928

2,838

4,414

3,398

Estimated

annual rates

and taxes

Sources:

60,000

CO 129/263, "Praya Reclamation Fund Statement of Expenditure to December 1893,"15 May 1894, p.39. "Praya Reclamation Scheme", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1889, pp.23-30.

"Surveyor General's Department Report for the Year 1891", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1892, No 2/92, p. 116. "Report on the Operation of the Public Works for the Year 1890", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1891, No 13/91. "Report of the Director of Public Works", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1893-1903.

2.4

Challenges for an Evolving City

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

Early twentieth century Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula, with reclamation carried out at the Royal Naval Yard. In 1891, Hong Kong had a total population of approximately 220,000, with 156,000 (71%) living

on Hong Kong Island. Modernisation of Kowloon Peninsula commenced considerably later than the island's.

Tightly packed buildings along the waterfront of the City of Victoria after reclamation in 1903.

The Praya Reclamation Scheme, undertaken between 1889 and 1903, extended from the Gas Works in West Point to Murray Pier in Central. The scheme cost about HK$2.9 million and involved the construction of a new Praya wall that was 3,400 yards long.

Panoramic view of the City of Victoria at the end of the nineteenth century.

North shore of Hong Kong Island in 1935. The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank was a landmark in Central.

ETUIT

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

2.9

2.10 Reclamation began in 1921 at the intersection of

Hennessy Road and Johnston Road in Wan Chai and extended to Percival Street in Causeway Bay. The photograph shows reclamation carried out for the construction of the seawall.

2.11 A major work item of the Praya East Reclamation Scheme - the expansion of the site formerly occupied by the Royal Naval Arsenal Yard.

2.11

ம்

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

2.10

owners were permitted to extend the verandahs and arcades of their buildings over the public footpath by 10 feet. Taking into account the seawall's building cost and the technical problems, the works were to be carried out in stages, commencing with sections 1 and 7, to be followed by sections 2 and 6, then sections 3, 5 and ending with 4. The areas covered by the Praya Reclamation Scheme are listed in Table 2.2.

The reclamation scheme got under way in 1889 and was completed in 1903. The estimated cost, actual expenditure, and the assessed land values upon completion

are tabulated in Table 2.3.

It can be seen from Table 2.3 that between 1890 and 1898, the private land owners had invested a total of HK$1,907,330. As the government ceased to disclose the expenditure by the land owners from 1899 onwards, it is not possible to work out the total sum invested by the private sector. During the corresponding period, the

administration spent HK$333,010 on the scheme. Available information reveals that a total of HK$2,895,831 had been invested in the reclamation scheme by 190389, about 15 per cent higher than the estimated cost. With the successful completion of the Praya Reclamation Scheme, Central and Western District possessed far higher development potential.

At the end of the 1880s, while carrying out the Western District - Central reclamation scheme at full pace, the government also invited tenders from the private sector to augment land space along the shoreline of Western District. Land expansion

activity carried out in the Kennedy Town area included: the seawall at Marine lots 126 and 2669, Beach Street through Collinson Street to the middle of Shek Tong Tsuio1, and the new Western Market". According to the 1887 data, more was expended on seawall constructions, repairs and maintenance than on reclamation works. Taking the 74,000-square-foot reclamation project near the Sailors' Home in Western District as an example, the seawall cost HK$73,000 to build but just HK$37,000 was spent on the reclamation 93.

Praya East Reclamation Scheme

In 1897, when the Western District-Central reclamation project was in full swing, the administration commenced planning for the Praya East Reclamation which

was to start from the junction of present-day Hennessy Road and Johnston Road, and terminate at present-day Percival Street. This was to alleviate the population density in the City of Victoria by making more urban land available. As the scheme required the demolition of Naval Hospital on Hospital Hill, Paul Chater, who advocated this plan, proposed relocating the hospital to Kowloon and then levelling Hospital Hill and

Morrison Hill. The earth removed from the hills would be used as fill material for the

planned reclamation. A tramway track could be laid on the reclaimed land to help

Challenges for an Evolving City

2.12 Bowrington Nullah in the

1930s was an important part of the Praya East Reclamation Scheme, with the construction of three bridges to span the nullah.

2.13 Royal Naval Yard in the 1930s

following reclamation.

2.14 New face of the Royal Naval

Yard following reclamation.

2.15 In the early twentieth century,

the area east of present-day Admiralty, between Wan Chai and Causeway Bay, was known as Praya East. View of Praya East prior to

reclamation.

Challenges for an Evolving City

2.12

2.13

2.14

ROYAL NAVAL CANTEEN

2.15

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

Table 2.4 Praya East Reclamation Scheme Expenditure (1919-1931)

Reclamation and seawalls, including fill in Bowrington Canal, Royal Naval

camber; public piers to replace the piers

at Tin Lok Lane and Arsenal Street; a

refuse boat pier to replace the old pier

at Ship Street; adjustment of tramway

track

(unit: HK$)

Estimated

Actual Cost (1919) Expenditure

Cost

Cost Overrun Under run

Total Cost Overrun

1,794,500 2,070,459

275,959

Dredging

28,800

71,754

42,954

Drainage works-reclamation area

462,900

Drainage reconstruction and adjustment

in affected areas

326,000

Water mains reconstruction and adjust-

ment in affected areas

128,000

365,208

90,270

795,590 332,690

39,208

37,730

Roads

318,563

519,270 200,707

Reconstruction of buildings, etc

60,220

Amount chargeable to works shown in

64,697

236,259

105,542

176,039

40,845

the Treasury books as advance

Supervision

Extra payments

Total

Source:

200,000

243,070 43,070

924,071 924,071

3,383,680 5,421,493 | 2,075,543 37,730 2,037,813

"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha &

Co, 1931, No 1/1931, p. 6.

improve the transport conditions on Hong Kong Island94. In 1901, the government estimated that the scheme would yield up to seven million square feet of new developable land. Unfortunately, the Praya East reclamation project was held in abeyance for over 20 years, due to the Royal Navy's reservations regarding the relocation of Naval Hospital, the extra exemptions demanded by private Marine lot owners such as Jardine, Matheson & Co, and feasibility concerns with regard to the levelling of Morrison Hill.

Through the perseverance of Paul Chater, who represented the Marine lot holders and was a member of the Executive Council, the plan was sanctioned by the Executive Council on 4 May 1920, after the Royal Navy agreed to relocate Naval Hospital to Stonecutters Island. In 1921, Ordinance No 17 was enacted to allow the Praya East Reclamation to proceed. On 9 September 1921, Messrs Sang Lee & Co won the tender for the reclamation works. For a contract sum of HK$2,766,900 it was responsible for

the construction of the seawall and the warehouses along the Praya; the transportation of earth from Morrison Hill for reclamation use; the building of two public piers (one was 120.7 feet long by 35.3 feet wide; the other was T-shaped, with a length of 40 feet and widths of 21.3 feet and 41.2 feet); a refuse boat pier of 63 feet long by 58 feet wide and 15.2 feet deep; and a refuse storage shed measuring 58 feet by 32.5 feet 95. Within the reclamation area, the contract for the stormwater drain project connecting the grandstand at the Happy Valley racecourse to the new Praya was successfully tendered out on 20 October. However, no information is available on the contract sum. As for dredging work, Anglo-Chinese Engineering Association Ltd was granted a contract on 24 October to construct a Priestman grab dredger at a cost of HK$76,000. The dredger was to be used to dredge the trenches for the foundations of the seawall. The Praya East Reclamation Scheme cost HK$3,744,000, according to the estimates made by the government in 19219%.

The reclamation formally began on 1 November 1921. Initially, it was estimated that the project would be completed within six years. Beset by a multitude of problems, it suffered delay and was not finished until 1931, at a cost of HK$5.421 million. The sum was approximately HK$2.037 million higher than the estimates made in 1919 of around HK$3.384 million, and was $1.677 million more than the 1921 revised estimates of HK$3.744 million. The cost to the private owners who participated in the reclamation and received land allotments came to HK$2.41 per square foot, which was much higher than the original estimate of HK$1.50597.

The Praya East Reclamation required the use of a total of 3,111,099 cubic yards of fill material. Of this amount, 2,906,120 cubic yards came from Morrison Hill; the remaining 204,979 cubic yards was sourced mostly from East Point Hill (Jardine's Lookout). An approximately 90 acres of new land was to be created. The seawall was 4,995 feet long and was finished in May 192998. A 2,300-foot section of the old Praya East roadway was reconstructed and widened to 75 feet and became Johnson Road, while another 3,600 feet of this road (now part of Hennessey Road) was increased to 100 feet in width. The scheme built a total of 13,645 feet of roads that had a width of 75 feet and another 2,080 feet that was 100 feet wide. These newly built roads required the re-laying of approximately 5,000 feet of tramway track".

Several problems were encountered during the reclamation. Besides the construction of the seawall and new piers, the existing drainage system on Nos 68-80, 99-116 of Praya East had to be raised by two feet in order to bring it into alignment with the new drainage system100. This caused problems to the ground floor levels of some of the old houses and Queen's Road East needed to be raised as well. New sewers installed at the reclamation area totalled 22,239 feet in length, with another 16,276 feet of stormwater drains and 22,780 feet of water mains laid. For areas affected by the reclamation,

Challenges for an Evolving City

2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19

The Praya East reclamation took place between 1921 and 1931, resulting in the formation of 86 acres

of land at a cost of HK$5.42 million. Views of the

Wan Chai waterfront captured from the end of the

nineteeth century to the 1930s.

2.16

►

18,993 feet of sewers had to be rebuilt and 14,360 feet of stormwater drains reconstructed.

The government also needed to construct a 36-foot wide nullah at the Bowrington Canal

Bridge for a distance of 650 feet to connect the road drainage to the seafront. Three bridges were built to span the Bowrington Nullah: the bridge on Hennessy Road was 100 feet wide

and carried a double-track tramway, while the bridges on Lockhart Road and Gloucester

Road each had a width of 75 feet. The bridge on Leighton Road Hill had to be reconstructed to accommodate the raising of the road level 101. The original plan was to construct a roadway with stormwater culverts from the race course grand stand at Happy Valley to Tonnochy

Road to connect to the Wong Nei Chung Valley drainage system. This plan had to be abandoned due to the presence of large core of hard granite rocks on the Morrison Hill site. Road improvement works were also required in Arsenal Street, East Point and Morrison Hill Road, as well stormwater drainage construction in Happy Valley. All such works involved resumption of properties. The estimated cost borne by the government for the Praya East Reclamation Scheme came to HK$2.185 million102.

2.17

2.18

2.19

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

2.20

2.20 By the early twentieth century,

Kennedy Town was already an important residential/commer-

cial area and served by trams.

2.21 The broad Des Voeux Road

West in the early twentieth cen- tury symbolised the expansion of

the city nucleus.

2.22 The Praya East reclamation added 16,000 feet of new road- way and re-laid 5,000 feet of

tram track.

2.23 Wan Chai after the 1930s

reclamation.

Challenges for an Evolving City

Although the reclamation was plagued with problems, the completion of the Praya East Reclamation yielded a total area of about 3,739,600 square feet (85.85 acres)103. The reclamation resulted in the erection of 608 Chinese houses along the Praya, equipped with modern hygiene facilities. Other new building structures that sprouted up included a godown, a restaurant, a garage, a service station, workshops, showrooms, a petrol station and store, a cinema, and the new seamen's institute 104.

Besides making more land available, the early reclamation also helped to solve the hygienic problems plaguing the densely populated areas. This was a benefit that escaped most people's notice. Since the establishment of the Sanitary Board in 1883, most of the coastal swamp areas used for dumping rubbish and filth were filled and turned into dry land, in order to eradicate this health hazard. Dwellings were then

erected on the land thus formed. In 1883, areas that were reclaimed as a result of

hygienic concerns included Causeway Bay and Lap Sap Wan (in Western District) on Hong Kong Island, as well as Yau Ma Tei on the Kowloon Peninsula. The Causeway Bay dumping ground was situated at a swamp south of the typhoon shelter, with an area of 26 acres. Upon completion of reclamation, five acres was allocated for road building and another 21 acres of land was used to erect warehouses. The whole project required the use of 300,000 cubic yards of earth. With an estimated cost of HK$0.09

per cubic yard, the reclamation cost was about HK$27,000. Adding the HK$3,000

construction cost for the stalls along the shore, the total estimated cost came to around HK$30,000. The actual expenditure on the Causeway Bay reclamation project was HK$24,000105. With an estimated value of HK$4,000 an acre, the 21 acres of reclaimed land was worth around HK$84,000106. The Yau Ma Tei dumping ground reclamation scheme cost about HK$20,000, with another sum of HK$23,158 incurred on sewerage works, making a total expenditure of HK$43,158107. From the above examples, one can see that swamp reclamation was rather inexpensive and offered high financial returns. It could also resolve the sanitary problems that plagued the dumping grounds.

----------་

2.23

2.22

2.21

Challenges for an Evolving City

Development of the Kowloon Peninsula

2.24 The Kowloon City shoreline in the early twentieth century retained a strong

rural flavour.

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

Kowloon Peninsula Reclamation

The terms governing the sale of Crown land on the Kowloon Peninsula were largely the same as those applied to Hong Kong Island lots. The lots were categorised into four types, based on location and use criteria: Marine, Inland, Rural Building and Garden. The government allowed the purchasers the use of the lots on a lease basis, normally for a term of 75 years. The Marine lots were further divided into two types: true Marine lots and quasi-Marine lots. True Marine lots were bounded on one side by the sea at high water mark whereas the quasi-Marine lots were bounded by a public street interposed between the lot and the sea 108.

From the end of the nineteenth century to the early twentieth century, the government sought to reduce its financial commitments and included reclamation projects into its land sales, thereby making the private developers responsible for small-scale reclamations. To ensure that the reclamation locations and scale complied with the overall development plan, the authorities laid down all the specific reclamation requirements before land auctions, in order to facilitate oversight during construction. Such strategy not only brought money into government coffers through land sales, but also succeeded in creating land along the shores by tapping into the resources of private investors.

In the second half of the nineteenth century, private developers played a major role in the development in the Yau Ma Tei area. In 1876, the administration sold Kowloon Marine lots 29, 30 and 31 by public auction. These lots covered the seabed bounded by Temple Street to the east, Kansu Street to the south, Reclamation Street to the west and Wing Sing Lane to the north. The purchasers of those lots were obliged to reclaim land at their own expense. The strip of land running from Station Street (so called in the early twentieth century but now named Shanghai Street) to Reclamation Street was created through private reclamation efforts after 1876. In 1899, the government auctioned off parcels of land west of Station Street. Again, the purchasers were required

to undertake reclamation themselves. Lots that were disposed of in this auction included Marine lots 43-47, 49-50, 52-53; Inland lots 887-897; netting land premiums totalling HK$277,710. The land premium per square foot was between HK$0.06 and HK$1.13, and the lot holders were required to pay annual Crown rent of HK$10,022109. In 1900, the owner of Marine lot 39 was paid a sum of HK$2,280 and an annual reduction of Crown rent of HK$27 as compensation for increasing the width of Reclamation Street

in Yau Ma Tei by 50 feet.

In 1882, Kowloon Marine lots 20 and 21 were sold to Paul Chater at a price of HK$29,025 and HK$24,025 respectively. The sale terms required the private developer to carry out site formation works in Tsim Sha Tsui an area that extended up to the naval base to build godowns and construct seawalls along the waterfront to facilitate

the berthing of large vessels. In 1900, the areas covered by Kowloon Marine lots 48 and Inland lots 394, 910-912 and Hung Hom lot 219 were extended by 132,297 square feet through lease modifications. The government was able to charge an additional yearly rent of HK$984, in addition to receiving extra land premiums of HK$5,004 from the existing lot owners. In 1904, Kowloon Marine lot 34 was given the approval to extend seawards by 75,996 square feet. Since the 1880s, the administration had received numerous land extension applications from existing Marine lot owners. These lot holders offered to undertake the reclamation at their own expense and pay additional land premiums and Crown rent. They were also willing to bear the risks of lower values for their existing lots. The government approved most such applications, thereby reducing its financial commitments in the development of the Kowloon Peninsula112.

The private developers played an influential role in the urbanisation of the Kowloon Peninsula, as a significant amount of reclamation was undertaken by the land owners. At times the administration put its reclamation schemes up for auction

and asked the private sector to undertake the work; in other instances it allowed the

Table 2.5 Private Land Expansions (1892-1930)

1892

1893

1894

1895

1896

1897

1898

1899

1900

1500

Hong Kong Island

Kowloon

Hong Kong Overall

Year

No of

Area

Lots

(sq ft)

Annual Rent

Land Premium

No of

Area

Annual

Land

No of

Area

Lots

(sq ft)

Ex-

(HK$)

Ex-

Rent Premium

(HK$) (HK$)

Lots

(sq ft)

Ex-

Annual Rent

(HK$)

Land Premium

(HK$)

panded

267,367

12,506

——

479,740

——

7,797

——

78,652

684

8,247

9 83,904 561

4,434

403 2,060

38,486

292,584 2,231

27,321

402,451 30,261

1,455

10,870 105 2,913

32,353

354,410 1,610

34,960

108

417

15,716

——

1901

54,227 61

7,507

——

1902

3,844

270

483

——

1903

3,942

552

84,065 228

7,950

——

1904

97,060

——

88,529 1,182

82,700

g da

1905

5,664

46 1,141

74,919 6,816

59,006

——

1906

8,355 1,242 6,653

104,272 4,473

26,167

1907

5,285

975

4,678

1,840

376

1,403

1908

27,827

466

16,914

5,434 6,952

2,463

1909

908

327

718

108

——

1910

7,983 751

3,571

——

1911

15,199

4,229

57,699 332

5,926

1912

25,341 1,030

4,226

281

1,160

——

1913

19,661 1532

11,261

1914

75,652 519

16,040

462

209

——

1915

61,761 255 5,513

48,120 3,824

1,464

1916

1917

1918

15,916 143 2,818 174,273 918 21,262 10

90,552 655 19,996 7

2,304 303,434 2,444

195

37,607

357,912 2,864 55,867

——

1919

——

1920

1921

1922

1923

2858

——

1924

——

1925

1926

——

1927

1928

1929

——

1930

Total

1,058,730

112,450

22,335

91,949

21,846

62,321

1,162,939

1,605,101

Sources:

2.25

2.25 The southern end of the Kowloon Peninsula was used principally for military and govern-

ment purposes at the end of the nineteenth

century.

2.26 The development of the Kowloon Peninsula took place much later than the north shore of Hong Kong Island. The photograph shows the sharp contrast in extent of development between these two regions.

2.27 Eastern shore of the Kowloon Peninsula in the early twentieth century was rather tranquil.

93,279

80,786

76,164

46,842

316,869

464,413

89,663

NECENT!

"Report of the Director of Public Works”, Hong Kong, Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1908-1930, Appendix Q. "Report of the Director of Public Works”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1892-1907.

"Report of the Acting Director of Public Works for 1893”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1894, No 16/94, p. 225.

Part

II Expansion of the

City Nucleus (1883-1945)

HONC KONC

2.26

2.27

2.28

2.31

1. bu

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

2.28 Hung Hom was an embryonic industrial

district in the early twentieth century.

2.29 Yau Ma Tei Police Station was an impor- tant landmark on the Kowloon Peninsula

in the early twentieth century.

2.30 Tin Hau Temple in Yau Ma Tei in the early

twentieth century.

2.31 The city nucleus in the 1930s. Develop- ment on the Kowloon Peninsula tilted to- wards the western and southern parts, with the Kowloon-Canton Railway Termi- nus located at the southern tip, and piers and the Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter built

on the western shore.

2.29

2.30

existing Marine lot holders to reclaim and create more land. The figures in Table

2.5 above reflect the widespread practice of private-sector participation in land expansion. Between 1892 and 1898, the privately held land area for the whole of Hong Kong was increased by 1.605 million square feet. For the 1899-1918 period, the figures were 1.059 million square feet and 1.163 million square feet respectively for Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon Peninsula (figures for 1919-1930 are not available). Thus,

between 1892 and 1918, Hong Kong increased its land area by 3.827 million square feet through the efforts of the private developers.

Kowloon Tong Garden City Plan

At the end of the nineteenth century, an Englishman, Ebenezer Howard, pioneered the garden city concept. His vision was to build a medium-sized commercial town not far from agricultural regions. The town would have clear separations between residential and commercial areas, and would be served by excellent transport facilities. It aimed to create a living environment that had an abundance of space for recreational and

social activities. In 1903 Ebenezer Howard's brainchild was realised with the creation

of the first garden city in the town of Letchworth, 35 miles outside London. The design

of the Letchworth garden city was much admired in Western countries, and this concept was subsequently widely applied in urban planning113.

In 1922, inspired by the Letchworth garden city concept, a Hong Kong company - Kowloon Tong and New Territories Development Co - planned to build a residential

district for the salaried class, in an area near the Kowloon Tong railway station. The

proposed site was close to the city centre and the district, which was to be made up of houses with gardens, would have schools and offer plenty of open spaces. As the proposed development targeted the upper-middle class families, it was criticised by the labour unions after its launch. The developer actively promoted the project and

Challenges for an Evolving City

222

Challenges for an Evolving City

Table 2.6 Kowloon Tong City Garden (1922-1930)

(unit: HK$)

Excavation and fill

Sewers

Stormwater drains

372,552

120,149

158,764

Surfacing roads, etc.

102,271

Extension of roads at Kowloon Tsai

11,876

Connection of streams east side of estate to main nullah

(estimated) 16,000

Connection of stream north of hill area to main nullah

67,668

Sidewall and invert of nullah, east side

191,907

Total

1,041,187

"Report of the Director of Public Works”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government,

1927-1930, Appendix Q.

Source:

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

even sought government's approval to accept deposits from the prospective purchasers. Unfortunately, the site formation works failed to commence on time, and the development encountered delay114.

A number of technical problems had to be resolved by the authorities for the project to proceed. To prepare the site, the hill area in Kowloon Tong needed to be excavated. In addition, it had to construct a nullah on the east side, and to connect the stream north of the hill area to the main nullah115. In 1922, the government undertook the site formation works but the contractor, Li Hing & Bros, failed to complete the

work on time. On 4 November 1929, the work was given to Keng Tak Cheong under Contract No 62 of 1929116. Furthermore, the administration was required to make monetary compensation for land resumption. Payments totalling HK$58,000 were made in 1923

for 137 resumed lots. In 1926, the government allotted 9.11 acres of land for the Kowloon Tong city garden project, making a total allotment of 54.43 acres for the scheme117. The excavated earth amounted to 430,000 cubic yards and 270,000 cubic yards in 1924 and 1925, respectively. It was mostly sent to other lowlying areas for site formation purpose118. Government expenditure on the garden city scheme is detailed in Table

2.6.

117

Work on the city garden project began in earnest in 1925, in an environment clouded by labour strikes, declining economic conditions and a depressed property market. On completion, the Kowloon Tong residential district was largely a community occupied by the upper class. It was not a comprehensive development area and its community facilities failed to meet the needs of a rapidly growing population. Kowloon Tong ended up as an exclusive residential area instead of a comprehensively developed community as espoused by Ebenezer Howard.

2.32 The Kowloon Tong Garden City project undertaken by Kowloon Tong and New Territories Development Co in

1922 was the first attempt in building a comprehensive development community in Hong Kong.

2.33 The government expended over HK$1 million on the Kowloon Tong City Garden project to provide support infrastructure. The completed city garden, however, became an exclusive residential district for the upper- middle class.

Table 2.7

Tonnage Statistics-Ocean-going Vessels Berthing inside Victoria Harbour (1881-1923)

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

Maintenance of Port Facilities

For Hong Kong to serve as the entrepôt in the Asia Pacific region, it required an excellent harbour and world-class port facilities. Since the early twentieth century, the government could no longer rely on the natural advantages of Victoria Harbour. To ensure that the principal fairways could serve ever-larger vessels and increasing visits by ocean-going ships, recurrent fairway dredging and proper maintenance of harbour facilities were indispensable if Victoria Harbour were to maintain its premier status.

Fairway Dredging

The regular maintenance dredging of the fairways since the early twentieth century allowed Hong Kong to retain its position as a vital trading port in the Asia Pacific region. With the reorganisation of the Survey Department into the Public Works Department in 1883, the latter had been given the responsibility for the dredging of Victoria Harbour. The importance of this task, however, was not recognised until the early twentieth century. By then, the ocean-going vessels constructed were much larger than those built at the end of the nineteenth century, both in terms of tonnage and draught depth. On 26 May 1902, the Harbour Master's Office report on the necessity of dredging showed that between 1896 and 1901 approximately 3,463 sea-going vessels sailed into Victoria Harbour, and 57 ships moored in the harbour each day119. Between 1881 and 1923, over a period of 42 years, vessels calling at Victoria Harbour grew larger in size and their numbers increased. For details see Table 2.7 below.

The above statistics bear witness to the thriving maritime trade in the early twentieth century. In 1901, the number of ships visiting Hong Kong was much higher than in 1891, with 274 vessels weighing over 2,000 tons, a fivefold increase over 1891's figure of 55 ships. Of that total, four German ships weighed over 6,000 tons, and the warships tended to have even higher tonnage. According to the Harbour Master, Victoria Harbour had an estimated sea area of 7 square miles, of which 3.5 square miles had

Vessel Tonnage

1881

1891

Number of Vessels

1901

1913

1923

Sailboats

25,653

24,553

Under 60 tons

4,574

4,811

60- 1,999 tons

448

348

8,404

7,899

2,000-2,499 tons

110

2,500-2,999 tons

3,000-3,499 tons

3,500-3,999 tons

4,000-5,000 tons

Over 6,000 tons

Sub-Total-:>2,000 tons

274

8,889

12,637

Total

503

622

47,520

49,900

Sources:

CO 129/311, "Dredging of Harbour", 26 June 1902. Duncan, John, "Report on the Commercial Development of the Port of Hong Kong by John Duncan, M.

Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong Government. 1924, No 14/1924, p. 133.

a depth of less than 4.5 fathoms (27 feet). Fairways and berthing areas reserved for special classes of vessels such as warships and ships carrying coal and dangerous goods took up another 1.25 square miles, leaving just 2.25 square miles of mooring space for the large ocean-going ships. The waters between Yau Ma Tei and Stonecutters Island were particularly shallow. Constant dredging was required in order to maintain the harbour depth at not less than one fathom (6 feet).

During the 1883-1939 period, almost two million cubic yards of silt was removed

at a cost of around HK$608,000, that is, at HK$0.3 per cubic yard. The authorities did not need to pay large sums for the dredgers. When extension works were carried out at the naval yard in 1908, the hopper dredger St Enoch, with a capacity of 650 tons, was deployed. It was purchased for the sum of £15,000 (HK$167,442) 120. The Priestman grab dredger that was used in 1922 was bought for HK$76,000, while an improved type of Priestman dredger was acquired for only HK$61,300 in 192811. The year 1934 saw the highest volume of dredging, with over 92,000 cubic yards of silt removed. Since its introduction, dredging activity had increased steadily. From a range of between 20,000 and 50,000 cubic yards in the 1890s, it rose to 30,000-40,000 cubic yards in

the 1910s, and increased further to about 60,000-90,000 cubic yards in the 1930s. The

growing importance of dredging can be gauged by the increasingly higher volumes of

silt removed.

Challenges for an Evolving City

Table 2.8 Harbour Dredging-Volume and Expenditure (1883-1939)

Year

Silt Volume Dredged (cubic yard)

Expenditure

1912

47,066

10,390

(HK$)

1913

29,421

8,557

1883

2,993

1914

40,757

2,044

1886

5,313

1915

43,757

6,346

1887

11,902

1916

42,290

10,687

1888

9,559

1917

39,984

3,615

1889

7,974

1918

39,502

4,823

1890

9,628

1919

41,794

7,481

1891

37,713

10,064

1920

40,556

10,477

1892

48,200

8,960

1921

47,655

12,183

1893

31,300

3,448

1922

25,549

4,033

1894

40,439

7,504

1923

29,184

11,776

1895

21,681

5,534

1924

36,097

14,331

1896

56,613

1,029

1925

27,653

13,904

1897

2,231

1926

39,962

11,548

1898

7,394

1927

27,653

10,572

1899

4,297

1928

39,171

15,691

1900

29,555

3,510

1929

61,101

23,726

1901

2,516

1930

58,050

27,777

1902

32,600

6,633

1931

67,246

30,799

1903

25,215

8,392

1932

66,166

30,539

1904

39,292

9,059

1933

73,987

23,748

1905

18,464

8,445

1934

92,417

23,092

1906

23,062

5,999

1935

87,304

23,772

1907

30,055

6,267

1936

83,637

23,863

1908

33,836

8,101

1937

89,350

21,698

1909

23,512

5,745

1938

52,069

12,054

1910

37,423

8,999

1939

85,653

30,794

1911

15,606

6,208

Total

1,999,597

608,024

Sources:

2.34 Close view of Causeway Bay in the early twentieth century, with the typhoon shelter in the middle. The small island on the

left of the photograph is Kellet Island.

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

"Report of the Director of Public Works”, Hong Kong Administration Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1931-1939, Appendix Q. "Report of the Director of Public Works”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1908-1914, Appendix P. "Report of the Director of Public Works”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1915-1930, Appendix Q. "Report of the Director of Public Works", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1892, 1894-1907.

"Report on the Operation of the Public Works for the Year 1890”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1891, No 13/91. "Surveyor General's Department Report for the Year 1891", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1892, No 2/92, p. 116. "Report of the Acting Director of Public Works for 1893”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1894, No 16/94, p. 225. "Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canals, Bridges, Buildings, &c., Not of a Military Nature, Which Have Been Undertaken", Hong Kong

Blue Book, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1883-1908.

Dredging activity was related to port works as it was often concentrated in areas that were earmarked for port development. They included Bowrington Canal, Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter, Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter, dockyards, piers and the 1922 Praya East reclamation site. Maintenance dredging was also required in places that had serious silt accumulation problems, for example, drain mouths, stormwater drains, nullahs and refuse stations. During the 1891-

1939 period, methods of treating dredged material were markedly different from those employed

today. In the early years, no considerations were given to environmental issues. The bulk of the foul material dredged up was used for reclamation or dumped into landfills without being analysed or sorted into various waste categories. The dumping grounds were eventually converted into reclaimed land, after being packed with dredged silt and all types of rubbish over a period of time. A typical example is Kwun Tong. It was a dumping ground in the 1930s and was subsequently developed into an industrial district.

Typhoon Shelter Construction

From the latter half of the nineteenth century to the first part of the twentieth century, fisherman households still made up 8-14 per cent of the total population of Hong Kong. They bore the brunt of typhoons and severe rainstorms. After the catastrophic typhoon in 1874, the administration began the construction of the first typhoon shelter in Causeway Bay to provide a refuge for fishermen. The Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter was completed in 1883, with a breakwater of only 1,400 feet in length 22. It was too small to accommodate all the boats that sought safe shelter during the passage of a

Challenges for an Evolving City

Year

Table 2.9 Dredging Works (1891-1939)

Dredged Area

1891

1892

1893

Causeway Bay

1894

Causeway Bay (35,026), Bowrington Canal (5,413)

1895

Causeway Bay

1896

Causeway Bay

1897

Causeway Bay, Praya reclamation

1898

1899

1900

1901

Bowrington Canal

1902

Bowrington Canal

1903

1904

City of Victoria and Kowloon dust boat stations (20,742), other portions of the foreshore (2,627), mouth of Water Street nullah (1,846)

Kowloon dust boat stations (2,089), City of Victoria dust boat station (16,263), other portions of the foreshore (8,882), trench for the foundations of seawall at Tai Kok Tsui (lot owners portion-6,334, government portion-5,724)

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

(unit: cubic yard)

Disposal Site

Year

Dredged Area

1922

Drain outfalls (14,914), Praya reclamation (7,598), Cheung Sha Wan Refuse Dump (1,584), Causeway Bay (1,453)

Praya reclamation site (29,900)

1923

Drain outfalls (16,177), Lai Chi Kok boat station (9,890). Causeway Bay (3,117)

Reclamation sites (19,855), outside Green Island (1,826)

1924

Drain outfalls (20,886), sanitary and other piers (10,253), Causeway Bay (2,403), Lai Chi Kok (380), on hire (2,175)

1925

1926

Praya reclamation section No 6

1927

Praya reclamation site

1928

Outside the harbour limits, Tai Kwok Tsui reclamation site

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

1936

1937

Drain outfalls (24,394), sanitary and other piers (6,023), Causeway Bay (855), on hire (890), Lai Chi Kok (219)

Drain outfalls (25,294), sanitary and other piers (12,499), Causeway Bay (1,723), on hire (446)

Drain outfalls (13,746), Sanitary and other piers (13,287), on hire (620), Penguin Shoals (66,259), Belcher Ridge and Rambler Shoal area (198,822), Kowloon Point area (248,944).

Foreshores and alongside public piers, refuse boat depots and Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (total 39,171)

Foreshores and alongside public piers, refuse boat depots, Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (total: 40,315); protective works Cheung Sha Wan,Cross harbour pipe line and nullah foundation work at Shau Kei Wan (total: 20.786)

Foreshores and alongside public piers, refuse boat depots and Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (total: 47,674), excavation of trenches for seawall foundations at North Point (10,376) Foreshores and alongside public piers, refuse boat depots and Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (total: 46,907), excavation of trenches for seawall foundations at North Point and Jordon Road (16,065), Kowloon Marine lot 95 To Kwa Wan-works on behalf of Hong Kong China Dock Co Ltd (4,274)

Foreshores and alongside public piers, refuse boat depots and Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (total: 35,125), Yacht Club (2,817), North Point (23,224)

Foreshores and alongside public piers, refuse boat depots, Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (total: 45,138), excavation of trenches for jetty and slipway foundations at Kai Tak Aerodrome (13,594), Kennedy Town seawall foundations (11.267), North Point seawall foundations (2,331)

Foreshores and alongside public piers, refuse boat depots and Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (total: 52,344), Kai Tak Aerodrome (3,314), works on behalf of Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Co Ltd (4,117), Kwun Tong (32,643)

Foreshores and alongside public piers, refuse boat depots and Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (total: 70,287), Kwun Tong-works on behalf of the British Admiralty (7,125), works on behalf of Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Co Ltd (5,132) and Taikoo Sugar Refining Co Ltd (4,760)

Foreshores and alongside public piers, refuse boat depots and Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (total: 82,529), works on behalf of the Admiralty (1,108), Western Kowloon Peninsula (233,800)

Foreshores or Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter and Yau Ma Tei harbour refuge and alongside public piers (76,802), works on behalf of the Admiralty (2,595), formation of bed for the new

cross harbour water mains (9,953)

Foreshores and alongside refuse boat piers (74,868), formation of bed for the new cross harbour water mains (10,785)

1938

Foreshores and alongside refuse piers (9,811), works on behalf of the Admiralty (9,429), formation of bed for the new cross harbour water mains (32,829)

Sham Shui Po reclamation site (1,500)

1939

Sham Shui Po reclamation site

Sources:

Sham Shui Po reclamation site (22,754).

Disposal Site

Sham Shui Po reclamation site (7,504), Praya East reclamation site (17,211)

Praya East and Lai Chi Kok reclamation sites

Praya East, Lai Chi Kok, Kowloon City, North Point and Kennedy Town reclamation sites

Sham Shui Po, Kowloon City, Kennedy Town reclamation sites

Praya East, Sham Shui Po, North Point

and Kennedy Town reclamation sites, and outside the harbour limits

Sham Shui Po and Kowloon Bay reclamation sites, and outside the harbour limits

Cheung Sha Wan

Cheung Sha Wan, Shau Kei Wan

Cheung Sha Wan, Kowloon Bay near Sung Wong Toi

Sung Wong Toi, Cheung Sha Wan

Sung Wong Toi

Kwun Tong dumping ground

Kwun Tong dumping ground (6,879)

Kwun Tong (5,697)

Kwun Tong (6.338), protecting the new cross harbour water mains (17,802)

1905

Bowrington Canal (9,092), Observation Place Pier (7,050)

1906

1907

Dust boat stations (5,861), nullah adjoining the paper mills in Aberdeen (6,758)

Dust boat stations (378), Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (16,094)

1908

1909

Mong Kok Tsui breakwater (8,990), Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (22,407)

Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (8,069), Mong Kok Tsui Typhoon Shelter (3,102), Kowloon City Pier (2,558), stormwater outfalls, (2,513), dust boat stations (1,470), various (4,714), outside Jardine, Matheson & Co's premises (546)

Gin Drinkers Bay

1910

100

1911

1912

1913

1914

1915

1916

1917

1918

Kowloon City Pier (21,608), stormwater outfalls (5,063), dust boat stations (5,683), Mong Kok Tsui breakwater (1,586), Bowrington Canal entrance (1,410), Shau Kei Wan Police Station (1,174), from foundation trench for seawall extending from Hung Hom Marine lot 1 to Kowloon marine lot 83 (899)

Causeway Bay (6,981), stormwater outfalls (4,161), Wing Lok Street wharf (1,598), Hong Kong and Kowloon Wharf and Godown Co's wharf in Western Street (549), Kowloon Point (1,993), North Point (324)

Causeway Bay (24,410), stormwater outfalls (10,262), typhoon refuge at Mong Kok Tsui (5,606), Castle Peak pier (2,649), Bowrington Canal outlet (1,519), site for new slipway for government launches at Yau Ma Tei (1,270), opposite Marine lot 31 in Kennedy Town, Lamma Channel (92)

Causeway Bay (27,974), Praya East (in front of Blue Buildings), Eastern Street sewer outlet (524)

Royal Naval coaling camber, Kowloon (18,724), Royal Naval Dock entrance, Hong Kong (138), dust boat station (1,258), stormwater drain outfalls (16,289), Causeway Bay (1,173), Praya East reclamation trial pits (3,175)

Royal Naval coaling camber, Kowloon (7,180), drain outfalls (4,329), opposite Marine lot 231 (China Sugar Refining Co's premises) (408), opposite Marine lot 301 (2,661), Causeway Bay (29.179)

Causeway Bay (9,761), Caroline Hill nullah (6,051), Kowloon wharves (5,428), Waterloo Road nullah (3,267), dust station at Central Market (3,168), drain outfalls (14,615)

In front of Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Co's premises (23,491), foundations for new seawall at Aberdeen village (3,694), Kowloon Godown Co's new wharf at Kowloon Point (1,553), drain outfalls (11,246)

In front of Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Co's premises (12,588), Naval yard camber at Kowloon (236), Sham Shui Po reclamation trial pits (3,787), drain outfalls (22,891)

1919

Drain outfalls (14,082), Sham Shui Po reclamation -trench for new foundations of seawall (27,712)

1920

Sham Shui Po reclamation - trench for new foundations of seawall (8,449), Sham Shui Po ferry pier (2,019), drain outfalls (12,286), Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (17,802)

1921

Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter (8,511), drain outfalls (28,816), Hung Hom ferry pier (1,993), Naval camber at Kowloon (332), Taikoo Sugar Refinery pier (8,003)

East Point reclamation site (17,802)

On the sites of Sham Shui Po reclamation (21,876), Praya East reclamation (17,766), Quarry Bay reclamation (4,610), North Point reclamation (3,393)

"Report of the Director of Public Works", Hong Kong Administration Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1931-1939, Appendix Q. "Report of the Director of Public Works", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1909-1914, Appendix P. "Report of the Director of Public Works", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1915-1930, Appendix Q. "Report of the Director of Public Works", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1892, 1894-1907 "Report on the Operation of the Public Works for the Year 1890", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1891, No 13/91. "Surveyor General's Department Report for the Year 1891", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1892, No 2/92, p. 116. "Report of the Acting Director of Public Works for 1893", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1894, No 16/94, p. 225.

101

Challenges for an Evolving City

Table 2.10 Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter Expenditure

Year

Item

Expenditure (HK$)

1883

Total construction cost

96,500

1909

Deepening shallow area

63,000

1910

Deepening shallow area

11,886

Total

171,386

Sources:

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1909", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong

Kong Government, 1910, Appendix O.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1910", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong

Kong Government, 1911, Appendix P.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1915 ", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong

Kong Government, 1916, Appendix Q, Q 86.

2.35 The first public typhoon shel-

ter was built at Causeway Bay near Victoria Park in 1883.

View of the site before the

construction.

ལ

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

Table 2.11 Mong Kok Tsui (Yau Ma Tei) Typhoon Shelter

Expenditure (1916)

Work Item

Expenditure (HK$)

Preliminary and incidental expenses, including cost of survey, etc.

19,300

Consulting engineers' fees

2,327

Cost of supervision, including salaries of engineering staff, overseers and foremen, and hire of launches

108,605

155,179

1,923,174

2,208,585

Cost of dredging

Contract payments

Total

Source:

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1916", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong

Kong Government, 1917, Appendix Q, Q 74.

typhoon123. In December 1903, Councillor Gershom Stewart proposed the expansion of the Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter at a session of the Legislative Council and the proposal was carried unanimously. Unfortunately, the plan was shelved due to lack

of funding. In 1904 and 1906, the government still failed to respond to the expansion proposal raised by the Legislative Councillors and the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce124. The typhoon that buffeted Hong Kong on 18 September 1906 destroyed and damaged 3,653 vessels, killing more than 15,000 people, most of them fishermen 125. This led to widespread discussion about the typhoon shelter expansion plan. In March 1908, the government passed the proposal submitted by the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce on 16 July 1904. The depth of the typhoon shelter at Causeway Bay was increased by 9 feet and the expanded Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter offered 75 acres of sheltered space. In 1953, the typhoon shelter had to be relocated to the northern

end of the original site due to reclamation works carried out by the authorities

126

From the end of 1906 to early 1907, the government looked for a suitable site

for a new typhoon refuge and the shelter plan was included in the agenda of the Legislative Council. Possible sites included Cheung Sha Wan, an area on the east side of Stonecutters

Island, Kellet's Bank and an indentation in the Praya wall near Kennedy Town. In

1908, the Public Works Committee unanimously agreed that Mong Kong Tsui (now

Yau Ma Tei) was the most suitable shelter site. The shelter was estimated to cost HK$1.54 million and had a projected sheltered area of 166 acres upon completion 127.

On 7 March 1908, the plan and budget for the Mong Kok Tsui boat shelter was submitted to the British government for approval. The typhoon shelter design was later modified by J. F. Boulton, Executive Engineer of the Public Works Department, after consultations with consulting engineers. The revised plan received the approval from the Legislative Council in November 1909. Eager to make early preparations for future typhoons, the government began excavation works on 2 September 1908, before receiving the final authorisation from Britain. It purchased the hopper dredger St Enoch from Messrs Punchard, Lowther & Co and commenced excavation works on the selected

site. The works were completed at the end of January 1910. The contract for building

the typhoon shelter was won by Messrs Him Tai on 27 October 1910, who submitted

the lowest tender. The works required the construction of a breakwater that was 3,325

feet long and 192 feet wide at the base. Reclamation was carried out to build a concrete and masonry pier that was 450 feet long by 30 feet wide. A sheltered area of 165 acres

was enclosed within the breakwater, with a water depth varying from 9 feet to 18 feet

below Low Water of Ordinary Spring Tides (LWOST). Eight-two per cent of the protected area had a depth of 12 feet below LWOST and 56 per cent had a depth in excess of 15 feet. There were two entrances to the typhoon refuge - the northern one was 300 feet wide while the southern and principal entrance had a width of 390 feet 128.

To build the Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter, it was necessary to elevate the roadway along the waterfront - Reclamation Street - and to re-lay sewerage and drainage systems

102

}

103

Transport Hubs

Challenges for an Evolving City

2.36 Close view of the Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter in the early twentieth century. Kellet Island is in the right of the

photograph.

on the existing site. Some of the houses on the waterfront were in a state of disrepair and there were others that had been destroyed by fires or typhoons. The government felt that these dwellings needed to be rebuilt. Nevertheless, the plan was opposed by

the owners of Marine lots 29, 30 and 31. They objected to further reclamation and sought compensation for the anticipated loss of their erstwhile prime locations on the waterfront and diminished property values129. Eventually the works were completed on schedule in August 1915. The typhoon shelter was inaugurated on 6 December 1915 by Governor F. H. May. The whole project took five years to complete at a cost of approximately HK$2.21 million, exceeding the original cost estimate of HK$1.54 million by HK$670,000130.

On 2 September 1937, Hong Kong was once again lashed by a severe typhoon, with Cheung Chau being the hardest hit area. This crudely exposed the inadequacy of the two existing typhoon shelters to meet fishermen's needs. As China and Japan were on the verge of war, the government had neither the time nor the finances to improve the anti-typhoon measures. Although it had contemplated building a typhoon refuge in Cheung Sha Wan, Stonecutters Island, or even the waters near Kennedy Town,

the third shelter - Aberdeen Typhoon Shelter - did not appear until 1962. The shelters at Causeway Bay and Yau Ma Tei remained the principal typhoon refuge for fishing boats before the 1960s. The Port Works Division of the Public Works Department assumed responsibilities for the construction and maintenance of shelters, while the marine police and the Marine Department managed the berthing vessels jointly13 ̧

131

By equipping the city nucleus with efficient transport facilities, the government was able to accelerate the pace of urbanisation and strengthen the external linkage capability. The efforts of the government in promoting modern transport networks through the construction of piers, railways and airport, had far-reaching influence on the economic development of Hong Kong.

Large Piers

According to the Hong Kong Blue Book and the annual reports of the Public Works Department, between 1885 and 1939, the colonial government expended approximately HK$3.36 million on the construction, repair and maintenance of piers. The major expenditure items included the building of the cross-harbour vehicular ferry piers on Jordon Road, Kowloon, and in Queen Victoria Street, Central (HK$1,911,451) between 1923 and 1935; the construction of Blake Pier between 1889 and 1901 (HK$122,774); and the redevelopment of Queen's Statute Wharf between 1921 and 1924 (HK$203,665).

The erection of Blake Pier at the end of the nineteenth century was the first large-scale public pier project overseen by the government. The construction contract was won by the firm Messrs Kinghorn & MacDonald under the supervision of J. F. Boulton and J. R. Mudie, Executive Engineers from the Public Works Department. The pier was 200 feet long by 40 feet wide. The base was made of granite masonry with a width of 126 feet which projected 40 feet from the cope line of the Praya wall, and with four flights of landing steps on each side 132. During that period, ashlar masonry and concrete were normally used in the construction of relatively large piers. Using the example of the rebuilding of the pier on Murray Road which started on 5 January 1897, the new pier required the setting of 5,989 cubic feet of granite ashlar, in addition to the laying of 63 cubic yards of cement concrete and 628 cubic yards of lime concrete 133 Technical difficulties were encountered during the erection of Blake Pier and the completion

104

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

105

Challenges for an Evolving City

2.37 Private piers flourished along the waterfront of

Central in the early twentieth century. The wooden piers were relatively small.

2.38 Star Ferry Pier in Central in the early twentieth

century.

2.39 A considerably larger Star Ferry Pier after expan-

sion works.

106

2.37

2.38

2.39

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

KOYLOON

MAN

time was longer than expected, at a cost of around HK$123,000134. Construction works commenced on 1 December 1889 and ceased in November 1900, with follow-up work

undertaken in 1901. The pier was inaugurated by Governor Henry Blake on 29 November of the same year.

The reconstruction of Queen Statute's Wharf was due to the efforts of Maurice

Fitzmaurice, who made the extension proposal during his visit to Hong Kong in November 1920. In July 1921, the Public Works Committee considered the plan and gave its

approval. The new pier was built with reinforced concrete, with a length of 160.7 feet,

a width of 41.3 feet, and a depth below LWLOST of 16.8 feet. The contract was awarded to Messrs Sang Lee & Co on 20 October 1921 for a value of HK$104,644. Eighty reinforced concrete piles with lengths of between 68 and 80 feet were produced at the Government Quarry located in Tsat Tsz Mui. The structural roof was made of steel

and the new concrete pier was more robust than the old wooden wharf. The redeveloped

Queen's Statute Wharf was completed before the end of 1922 at a cost of around HK$204,000135, with some minor works carried out in 1923 and 1924. Owing to its

unique design, the wharf became an important landmark in Central.

The two cross-harbour vehicular ferry piers located on Jordon Road, Kowloon, and in Queen Victoria Street, Central, respectively, were the largest piers built in the first half of the twentieth century. Survey work was carried out as early as 1923, but

the plan was only finalised in 1930. The vehicular ferry pier scheme required the reclamation

of about nine acres in front of the fire station frontage between Queen Victoria Street

and Jubilee Street, with a pier projecting 300 feet into the harbour from the northern

boundary of the reclamation, and reclamation of about two acres south of Jordon Road.

The group of piers on Hong Kong Island included a berth for one vehicle ferry, four

berths for passenger ferries, and two cargo berths (one located on the west side of the

new reclamation and the other on one side of the existing Queen Victoria Pier). Two hundred and eleven piles with lengths ranging from 36 feet to 88 feet were installed.

107

2.40 Many migrant workers earned their living by working as coolies at the piers.

2.41 Costing HK$123,000, Blake Pier was 200 feet long by 40 feet wide. Construction started in 1989 and ended in 1900. The pier was inaugurated by Governor Henry Blake on 29 November 1900.

Year

1885

1887

1889-1903

Challenges for an Evolving City

108

2.41

Table 2.12 Pier Erection and Reconstruction Expenditure (1885-1939) Year

Work Item

Refurbishment and extension-Murray Pier

Pier Size

(unit: HK$)

Expenditure

Erection of pier-opposite the Harbour Master's Office

Reconstruction of government piers including Nam Pack Hong pier, Western pier, Pottinger Street pier, boat-slips opposite the old and new Harbour Offices, Blake Pier*, Murray Pier, temporary pier at Ice House Street and Wardley Street

Reconstruction-Kowloon Point pier

3,407

3,662

245,116

1890

73 ft long by 45 ft wide

7,059

Reconstruction-Stonecutters Island pier

5,050

1896-1897

Erection-Kennedy Town pier in connection with the slaughterhouses and depots

211 ft long, an area of

6,871

4,600 sq ft

1900-1901

1907-1910

Reconstruction-deep water pier at Tai Po and causeway works

with a depth of 9 ft

2,969

Reinforcement-Green Island gunpowder depot pier

Green Island pier: 90 ft long,

34,416

Erection-a new pier in Kowloon City

with an area of 1,350 sq ft;

with an area of 2,950 sq

Kowloon City pier: 149 ft long,

Erection-Castle Peak Bay pier

Reconstruction-ferry piers (including pier opposite Queen Victoria Street, Public Square Street in Yau Ma Tei, Sai Wan Ho, Shau Kei Wan, Kowloon City)

Extension-Tai O pier

190 ft long by 6 ft wide

2,937

160,956

2.40

1911

1919-1923

1920

968

1920-1921

Erection-Cheung Chau pier

24,199

1921-1924

Reconstruction-Queen's Statute Wharf

203,665

1922-1923

1923-1924

Reconstruction-pier and landing place for pigs and cattle at Kennedy Town

Reconstruction-Blackhead's Point pier

23,638

50,377

1923-1925

1923-1935

1926-1927

Erection-Whitfield Road pier

20,724

Construction-vehicular ferry piers (Jordon Road and Queen Victoria Street)

1,911,451

Repair-Blake Pier

27,030

1928

Reconstruction- Kowloon Point police pier

13,415

1929-1931

Erection-Sham Shui Po ferry pier

134,024

1929-1931

Erection-Mong Kok Tsui ferry pier

141,045

1930-1931

Erection-Wilmer Street pier

58,457

1933

1934

Raising level of causeway to Kowloon City pier

1,236

Extension and improvements-Hung Hom ferry pier

8,461

1934-1935

1934-1936

Construction of refuse boat pier at Kweilin Street, Sham Shui Po

Erection-refuse boat pier, Ma Tau Kok livestock pier

44 ft long by 24 ft wide

11,442

45,838

1934-1936

Erection-seawall and Kennedy Town livestock pier

139,568

1935

Installation works-Hung Hom ferry pier

126

1936

Repair-Jubilee Street vehicular ferry pier

14,962

1936

Repair-Jordon Road vehicular ferry pier

14,034

1936-1937

Reconstruction-Kowloon City pier

12,639

1937

Improvements-Blake Pier

1939

Erection-covered entrance of Jubilee Street pier

Repair-vehicular ferry piers at Jubilee Street and Jordon Road

7,762

13,913

7,959

3,359,376

Total

* The reconstruction sum of HK$245,116 for the period 1889-1903 already included the HK$122,774 cost for the erection of Blake Pier in 1889-

1901.

Sources:

"Report on the Operation of the Public Works for the Year 1890”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1891, No 13/91. "Surveyor General's Department Report for the Year 1891", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1892, No 2/92, p. 116. "Report of the Acting Director of Public Works for 1893", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1894, No 16/94, p. 225. "Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canals, Bridges, Buildings, &c., Not of a Military Nature, Which Have Been Undertaken", Hong Kong

Blue Book, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1883-1908.

2.42

Challenges for an Evolving City

2.42 Work began on Kowloon-Canton Railway in 1905.

The 22.25-mile rail line was completed in 1910. The Kowloon terminus was built on largely re-

claimed land at Tsim Sha Tsui. Construction of

the 41-acre terminus began in 1912 and was com- pleted in 1916.

2.43 The Kowloon-Canton Railway Kowloon Terminus

at Tsim Sha Tsui was demolished in 1975. The

clock tower is the only structure left standing on

the original site.

2.44 Construction in progress for the Kowloon-Canton

Railway Kowloon Terminus at Tsim Sha Tsui.

2.43

2.44

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

For the formation of the seawall foundations, more than 30,000 cubic yards of rubble was deposited. The sewer in Queen Victoria Street was diverted to the Pottinger Street stormwater drain along Connaught Road 136. The works on Hong Kong Island were carried out by Messrs the Lam Construction Co, with participation by the Dutch company Messrs Netherlands Harbour Works Co. The vehicular ferry pier scheme was completed in 1935 at cost of HK$1.911million 137.

Kowloon-Canton Railway

The Kowloon-Canton Railway plan first appeared in 1864 when the British engineer, Rowland MacDonald Stephenson, and a partner of Jardine, Matheson & Co, M. A. MacLeod, attempted to establish a railway network in China. A section of the rail line was to run from Canton (now Guangzhou) to Kowloon. That proposal was discussed in public on 7 March 1864 at the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce. The scale of the proposed project was enormous and most of the businessmen in Hong Kong expressed reservations. As a result, the plan was shelved. By the 1890s, the

western powers were vying for concessions in China and the Kowloon-Canton plan was revived. On 28 March 1899, an agreement on the construction of the railway was signed between China and Britain. In 1899, P. T. Somerville Large prepared the first survey report on the building of the rail line. He recommended that Blackhead's Point

in Tsim Sha Tsui be chosen as the site for the Kowloon terminus. In the summer of

1904, agreement was reached between the Chinese and British governments. The Hong Kong government was given the responsibility to build, fund and operate the British section of the Kowloon-Canton Railway that ran between Shenzhen and Kowloon.

In 1905, the viceroy of Wuchang borrowed a sum of £1.1 million from Britain to buy back all the shares in Canton-Hankow Railway. The Wuchang government agreed to repay the loan over a period of 10 years and pay interest at the rate of 4.5 per cent

per annum. The British loan was made in the name of Hong Kong government, which collected in excess £110,000 each year from payments made on the loan. The British government allowed the colonial government to keep the loan repayments temporarily and use them to fund the construction of the railway section inside Hong Kong 138. In 1905, J. C. Bruce from the Public Works Department was appointed to co-ordinate the preliminary survey work. The project called for the construction of a 22.25-mile rail line that included five tunnels and 48 bridges, at an estimated cost of HK$5 million 139. The invested sum included the reclamation cost for the Tsim Sha Tsui terminus, as proposed by the Director of Public Works, William Chatham. The Kowloon-Canton Railway was completed in 1910 and was officially opened to traffic in October of the same year. Total construction cost exceeded the original estimates by almost 150 per cent and reached about HK$12.3 million (equivalent to £75,000 per mile) 140.

Although the railway went into service, the construction of the Kowloon terminus in Tsim Sha Tsui was still at a preliminary stage. A number of complicated issues had to be considered by the government in this development:

1. The railway terminus was sited along the waterfront to facilitate the loading and unloading of cargo, and the boarding and alighting of passengers. Unfortunately, most of the Marine lots in Tsim Sha Tsui, along the southern tip of the Kowloon Peninsula, were in the hands of private owners. The government had to reach agreements with the affected lot holders and offer them suitable compensations, such as land exchange or money.

2. The government had to undertake reclamation to provide more land along the seafront. 3. As the terminus was premised upon conditions that were hypothesised prior to reclamation,

there were considerable risks attached to the project111.

At the end of 1909, it was envisaged that 5 million cubic feet of earthwork would be required for the Hung Hom reclamation. The government acquired Marine

110

111

2.45

Challenges for an Evolving City

2.46

2.47

lots 618 and 1140 as the site for the Tsim Sha Tsui terminus. It was proposed to exchange part of the reclaimed land close to China Light and Power Co's premises for the land known as the Match Factory. Monetary compensation was to be made in respect of the buildings only142. In September 1910, the reclamation contract was awarded, but the proposal to locate the terminus in Tsim Sha Tsui was only formally approved in 1912. As an interim measure, the Kowloon-Canton Railway leased part of a godown belonging to the Hong Kong and Kowloon Wharf and Godown Co and converted it into a passenger station 43. The station was close to the marine police headquarters in Tsim Sha Tsui. On completion, the permanent terminus was located on Hung Hom Bay in Tsim Sha Tsui. To the east was Holt's Wharf and Blackhead's Point, to the south was Victoria Harbour, to the west were Star Ferry Pier and the Hong Kong and Kowloon Wharf and Godown Co, and Salisbury Road was to the north. It occupied an area of about 41 acres. The land created through reclamation not only catered for the railway requirements, but was also used for other purposes, with detailed plans drawn up by the Public Works Department. The Tsim Sha Tsui terminus was dismantled in 1975, leaving just the clock tower standing on the original site.

Airport Reclamation

As the name of the international airport built in Kowloon City in the 1930s was made up of the first names of two Chinese, Ho Kai and Au Tak, it was erroneously thought that Kai Tak Airport was the brainchild of these two individuals 45. In actual fact, both of them passed away more than 10 years before the airport plan was formulated. Ho Tak died in 1914 and Au Tak passed away in 1920. The airport's name had much to do with the fact that the area on which the airport was sited had become known as Kai Tak by the early 1920s. In 1912, two years before his death, Ho Kai formed Kai Tak Land Investment Co with Au Tak, the father-in-law of Ho Wing Ching, his eldest

son. Their plan was to reclaim land along the shore of Kowloon Bay and build dwellings to accommodate the influx of rich immigrants from Guangdong after the 1911 Revolution. As the government was planning to build a wireless telegraphy station at Kowloon Bay, the reclamation application was denied. Ho Kai passed away in 1914 without witnessing the realisation of his plan. Au Tak, with his partners Tso Seen-wan, Cheung Sum-woo and others,

resubmitted their Kowloon Bay reclamation plan on 20 November 1914. The proposal obtained the consent from the British government on 30 December 1915 and was formally approved.

The reclamation carried out by Kai Tak Land Development Co covered the area along the coast, stretching from Kowloon City pier at Kowloon

Bay to Tai Wan Glass Works. An estimated area of 210 acres of land was to be created. After deducting the four acres of land reserved for public facilities and the space needed for the construction of nullahs, roads and

seawalls, approximately 4.95 million square feet (113.6 acres) were made

available for development. In addition to bearing the reclamation cost, the developer was required to construct support facilities such as roads and nullahs. Upon completion, the company also had to pay the government HK$75,000 in land premiums and annual Crown rent of HK$200 for each

acre of privately developed land. Furthermore, it was required to inject further investments totalling HK$500,000 into that district within the next

nine years. The reclaimed land was to be leased out for a 75-year period

as from 1 July 1898, and was renewable for another 23 years and 362 days upon expiry, thus extending the lease to 27 June 1997. The Public Works Department was responsible for the installation of water mains and sewerage systems, as well as for monitoring the design work and the quality of the building materials.

2.45 In 1924, an American,

Harry Abbott, oper- ated a flying school and passenger and mail services. The Royal Navy aircraft

carrier HMS Hermes

used Kai Tak as a tem- porary air base in 1925. A fire broke out

at the flying school in

1927.

2.46 In 1924, The Hong Kong Flying Club used the eastern por-

tion of the Ka Tak rec-

lamation area for air-

craft landings and takeoffs.

2.47 Cargo handling area

in the western part of Kai Tak Airport in the

1930s.

112

(unit: HK$'000)

Table 2.13 Kai Tak Airport Construction Budget (1929)

Resumption

1,186

Forming of reclamation including completion of seawalls, nullahs,

738

surfacing and drainage

Covering of nullahs

275

Slipways, fill in camber area, extension of nullah in camber area and contingent works

275

Road

Compensation paid to Kai Tak Land Investment Co

626

Total

3,155

Less: subsidy from the British government (equivalent to HK$990,000) Net Expenditure

990

2,165

Source:

Wartime Hong Kong

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

Challenges for an Evolving City

114

CO 129/508/8, Kai Tak Aerodrome Appendix VI (A) 1929 Draft Estimates Aerodrome Site, 5 October,

1928.

The Kowloon Bay reclamation works were finished in 1920 and the reclaimed

site was named after the developer. The intention of using the created land for residential housing was not realised, owing to the unsatisfactory sanitary environment and a depressed economy. The land was left lying idle until 1924, when The Hong Kong Flying Club began to use it as an airfield. In the same year, an American, Harry Abbott, leased 60 acres of space from Kai Tak Land Investment Co to operate a flying school and air passenger and mail services between Hong Kong and China. In 1925, the Fleet Air

Arm of the Royal Navy aircraft carrier HMS Hermes also used the empty space in Kai Tak as a temporary air base.

In 1927, having considered the take-off and landing requirements of planes used for mainland services and amphibious aircraft, the Royal Air Force recommended

that an airport be built in the district of Kai Tak. Besides compensating the owners for the land resumed, the government was also required to carry out reclamation in order to balance the interests of the military and the business sector. On 29 September 1928, a British expert, J. A. Dawson arrived in Hong Kong to advise on site selection

and airport scale. He proposed that the airport be built on a 40-acre site: 28 acres was

to be reserved for the Royal Air Force and the remaining 12 acres for commercial use. The airport was equipped with two runways. By 1928 the construction cost reached HK$2.53 million. That figure rose to HK$3.155 million after including the HK $626,000 compensation made to Kai Tak Investment Co in respect of land resumption, as recommended by J. A. Dawson. A subsidy of £100,000 (equivalent to HK$990,000) was granted by the British government towards the airport's construction146.

The construction of Kai Tak Airport laid the foundations for Hong Kong's aviation industry. From the mid-1930s onwards, it assisted Hong Kong to attain its

position as a premier aviation hub for the Asia Pacific region.

When the Second World War broke out, all infrastructural works came to a complete stop and the government had to modify those facilities for defence. In 1941, the government expended more than HK$8 million to construct over 60 air-raid shelters147 in preparation for the war. To control port traffic, Acting Colonial Secretary Franklin Charles Gimson declared on 12 December 1941 that vessels below 60 tons were not allowed to enter or anchor in Victoria Harbour, with the exception of those that were already inside the Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter. Ships over 60 tons that berthed in the harbour were ordered to moor off the northern shore of Hong Kong Island, in the waters between North Point and Western District. The movements of the vessels were dictated by the British military and the Harbour Master was empowered to use force to enforce orders 148. With impending war, Victoria Harbour could no longer serve its role as an entrepôt. Following the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, the British military even commandeered transport from the civilian operators such as The Hong Kong and Yaumati Ferry Co Ltd, to help them move military supplies and evacuate British soldiers stationed on the outlying islands.

On 28 December 1941, the Japanese forces officially occupied Hong Kong. They set up a Military Administration Bureau at The Peninsula hotel (the name was later changed to the East Asia Hotel by the Japanese) on 29 December. They also established the Military Administration Bureau's Civil Affairs Department - Hong Kong Office at the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank in Central. The Military Administration Bureau was responsible for the administration of Hong Kong, with five departments under its supervision: general, civil affairs, economic, justice and marine149. On 2 February 1942, Rensuke Isogai arrived in Hong Kong to take up his post as Governor. This marked the beginning of civilian rule by the Governor's Office of the Captured Territory of Hong Kong until the Japanese surrender in 1945 - a period lasting more than three years 150. Under the Governor's Office were the following departments: civil administration, finance, transport, economic, information, management and external

115

2.48

Challenges for an Evolving City

Ferry became the sole provider of cross-harbour ferry service between Central and Tsim Sha Tsui. Normal passenger ferry service between Kowloon and Hong Kong Island was restored gradually from early 1942153. As the Japanese occupation forces were not in favour of Hong Kong's trading activity, vessels that were engaged in foreign trade were required to use junks to handle cargo at O Creek Pier or in the waters off the Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter154. Port development works came to a complete halt. The existing infrastructural facilities such as water supply, gas, electricity and communications resumed service a month after the invasion. Rail service was severely disrupted by the war. The Hong Kong-Canton railway line only resumed service from March 1942. The Japanese highly valued the strategic role played by Hong Kong in the Far East

affairs. The three most important ones were civil administration, finance and transport. The Transport Department was further divided into sections of marine, army, civil engineering and sewerage. The Civil Engineering Section was responsible for building

and construction works.

On 20 April 1942, the Japanese Governor japanised the names of all the main roads and streets. Connaught Road was changed to Sumiyoshi-doori; Queen's Road became Meiji-doori; and Des Voeux Road was renamed Showa-doori. The districts on Hong Kong Island and in Kowloon also had their names altered. For example, Chong Wan (Central) was changed to Naka-ku; Sheung Wan to Nishi-ku; Sai Ying Pun to Suijou-ku; Shek Tong Tsui to Kuramae-ku; Kennedy Town to Sanou-ku; Bowrington to Kasuga-ku; Wan Chai to Higashi-ku; Happy Valley to Haruha-ku; Aberdeen to Genkou- ku; Tsim Sha Tsui to Kyuryu Minato-ku; Yau Ma Tei to Katori-ku; Mong Kok to Oosumi- ku; Sham Shui Po to Aoyama-ku; Kowloon Tong to Kashima-ku; Hung Hom to Yamashita- ku; and Kowloon City to Moto-ku. Only Causeway Bay and Tsuen Wan were allowed to retain their existing names11. On 24 December 1944, Governor Rensuke Isogai was

transferred out to become Governor of Taiwan. On 1 November 1945, the Japanese government appointed the commanding general in Guangzhou, Hisaichi Tanaka, to succeed as Governor. In March 1945, the Governor's Office was restructured and the

departments were organised into two main ones: civil administration and transport. Under the umbrella of the Transport Department were the sections of exchange, shipping,

trade, ship construction, communications and construction. The Construction Section came under the direction of the head of the Communications Section 152

During the early occupation period, many of the piers ceased operation. The

Jordon Road pier in Yau Ma Tei was commandeered by the Japanese forces and converted

into a machine gun bunker. As the Central ferry pier was close to the Japanese Osaka Pier which was protected by mines, passengers were not allowed to use it. The Star

•

2.48 An air-raid shelter at Kai Tak

Airport during the war.

2.49 The bulk of civil engineering works were performed manu- ally before the war.

116

2.49

Challenges for an Evolving City

118

JAMI

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

region. Hong Kong was regarded as the air hub serving China and other regions in Asia 155

There was practically no new infrastructural development during the occupation period156. From the end of 1942 to early 1943, the extension work carried out at Kai Tak Airport was the only large-scale construction undertaken. The airport project involved the building of two runways almost perpendicular to one another. Due to its scale, it was necessary to pull down the existing airport terminal building and clear the 20 villages located on the waterfront of Kai Tak or south of Kowloon Wall City, which included Po Kong, Sha Tei Yuen, Tai Hom, Kak Hang, Ma Tau Chung and Kau Pui Shek. No compensation was paid by the Japanese to the affected residents, and fewer

than half of them were resettled to Model Village, near Refrew Road, Lancashire Road

and Junction Road.

The airport project was handled by the Kai Tak Airport Extension Works Office. As the extension was related to military and defence needs, the Japanese authorities

mobilised the efforts of the district offices in Kowloon, the military police, and Lianghua

hui (Association of Chinese Representatives and Chinese Association of All Professions)

to relocate the Kowloon City residents. They also organised resettlement committees,

with the district leaders appointed as chairmen and vice-chairmen. This was to ensure

the success of the resettlement and demolition exercise and to co-ordinate with the

work of the chief of staff of the Governor's Office and the Hong Kong Aviation Planning Committee, which was comprised of senior army, navy and air force officers 157. Construction

of the runways began in July 1942 and the demolition of the terminal started in August; but the airport extension works could not commence until 10 September 1942. The building of the runways was largely carried out by prisoners of war. According to the report of the Hong Kong Daily of 15 September 1942, 800 war prisoners were involved

in the construction, and their numbers eventually grew to over 4,000. The two 1,500- yard long runways were completed in 1945158

Japan's ambition of using Hong Kong as the transportation hub in the Asia Pacific region was dashed with its surrender in 1945. Following the liberation of Hong Kong, the airport was taken over by the British military. On 31 August of the same

year, the Harbour Department resumed its control over port matters. The pre-war restriction barring vessels from entering or mooring in the harbour without the Harbour Master's authorisation was reinstated on 2 September159. It was not until 1946 before post-war

reconstruction work could proceed gradually.

2.50 Kai Tak Airport in 1945 after expansion. Two almost perpendicular runways, each with a length of about 1,500 yards, could be

seen clearly.

119

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

Summary

Once the colonial government selected northern Hong Kong Island as the nucleus of the territory in 1841, the Central and Sheung Wan areas assumed increased importance. Hampered by stiff opposition from the Marine lot owners at the Praya, as well as from the British military authorities, the proposed Central reclamation scheme was stymied between 1850 and 1860. Reclamation was only allowed to extend westwards and incorporated Western District as part of the city core. The scenario changed dramatically by the end of the nineteenth century. With a rising population and soaring land prices, the Marine lot owners were highly motivated to increase their land holdings at the centre of the city. Not even the British forces could stand in the way of a booming economy. The British military had to allow the government to carry out reclamation in the vicinity of military establishments. In 1887, the Praya Reclamation Scheme espoused by Paul Chater succeeded in balancing the interests of all the parties involved and gained support from both the government and the business sector. The scheme was completed in 1903 and it triggered the gradual development of the districts of Wan Chai, Causeway Bay and North Point.

Between 1883 and 1945, approximately 200 acres of land was formed by reclamation. This new source of land not only swelled government coffers from land sales, but also generated stable revenue for the Treasury in the form of Crown rent. The reclaimed land laid the foundations for the city's development. Increasing numbers of dwellings equipped with better sanitary facilities were erected to meet the needs of the growing population and thriving commercial activity. Improvement works were implemented in the major commercial and residential districts to widen the roads, in order to accommodate modern means of transport such as trams and public buses. Infrastructure befitting a modern city, including such things as sewerage systems, water and electricity, was installed in the various districts. The additional land provided by reclamation quickened the pace of urbanisation in the territory.

The development of each and every district in Hong Kong was closely linked

to the time of reclamation. In the second half of the nineteenth century, commercial

activity centred on the district of Central. Chinese from the province of Guangdong

made up the majority of the population in Sheung Wan and Western District. Sheung Wan still retains the culture and customs of the late nineteenth-century Guangdong,

and as such reflects the cultural style of the late Qing dynasty. In the 1920s, reclamations took place in Ha Wan (Wan Chai) and turned the district east of the Royal Navy headquarters

(Admiralty) into an area characterised by a harmonious blending of Eastern and Western

cultures. The reclamation works between the mid-1920s and the 1930s along the waterfront

of Causeway Bay and North Point sparked commercial activity in the eastern part of Hong Kong Island. This characterised the development of Hong Kong's commerce

and industry in the first half of the twentieth century.

Although the colonial government took possession of the Kowloon Peninsula

in 1860, it was not until the early twentieth century that a consensus on the direction

of its development was reached with the British military authorities. As a result, the government allowed participation by private owners in land development in the densely populated areas. During the period 1892-1918, 88 acres of land was created territorywide

by the private sector; 27 acres of new land was made available on the Kowloon Peninsula between 1899 and 1918 through the expansion of land held privately. An example of a government-designed but privately-developed reclamation project was the reclamation undertaken at Temple Street, Yau Ma Tei, in Kowloon. The government mobilised private resources to progressively reshape the western shore of the Kowloon Peninsula. Large- scale development of the southern end of the Kowloon Peninsula only commenced

after the confirmation of the Kowloon-Canton Railway terminus plan in 1910. Aided by the provision of transport and other support facilities, Tsim Sha Tsui became the second city nucleus after Central.

In the area of port facilities, the relevant department in charge of port works constructed piers of different sizes on the northern shore of Hong Kong Island and along the eastern and western waterfronts of the Kowloon Peninsula to support the expansion of the city. Cross-harbour ferry services were pivotal in linking up the two nuclei, one on Hong Kong Island and the other in Kowloon. The newly built ferry piers were spacious and were used to stage large-scale activities. In the first half of the twentieth century, a number of major ceremonies were held at Blake Pier and Queen Statute's Wharf. Since the establishment of the Public Works Department in

1883, the infrastructural works undertaken were on a far larger scale. From the late

nineteenth to the early twentieth centuries, the Praya Reclamation Division was an

important arm of the Public Works Department. It was entrusted with the vital task of

carrying out reclamation and port development works. Reclamation still followed the

Challenges for an Evolving City

120

121

Part II Expansion of the City Nucleus (1883-1945)

concept of levelling the mountains and filling up the seas, and sourcing fill material near the reclamation site. Perfect examples are the Western District reclamation which

sourced the material from Hospital Hill, and the reclamation in Wan Chai that received its supply of fill material from Morrison Hill. The Pierre-perdue method was employed

in seawall construction, which resulted in constructions similar to the vertical seawalls

built in modern times. It was first applied in the Bonham Strand West reclamation in

the 1860s and enabled the seawall to withstand severe typhoons effectively. The construction of seawall at the reclamation limit and the use of the Pierre-perdue method to reinforce

Praya walls dictated the reclamation techniques applied from the late nineteenth to

the early twentieth centuries. Constrained by the lack of financial resources, much of the reclamation was undertaken by the private sector, which provided funding as well as performing the actual work. Irrespective of whether the reclamation works were

carried out by the government or by the private enterprises, they still had to be scrutinised and approved by the Praya Reclamation Division of the Public Works Department. In

1924, its successor, the Port Development Division, had the responsibilities of assessing the feasibility of port works, examining and approving plans, preparing cost budgets, overseeing works and reporting progress, as well as ensuring quality. It laid the foundations for the development of the Civil Engineering Department.

To cater for the prospering maritime trade, ocean-going vessels grew increasingly larger, and an increasing number of ships moored inside the harbour. Victoria Harbour,

with water areas stretching from Central to North Point, was unable to accommodate

vessels with a draught in excess of 30 feet. In support of the port development works,

the government carried out regular dredging of the major berths and fairways to ensure

sufficient depths for berthing and safe navigation. Dredging activity became an integral function of the department responsible for harbour works. Dredging began in 1883 and was mostly performed by the simple-designed grab dredger or hopper dredger. Between 1883 and 1939, over a period of 56 years, less than HK$610,000, or about

HK$11,000 per year, was spent on fairway dredging. Dredged material amounted to 2 million cubic yards. Some of the early reclaimed areas such as Kwun Tong were actually rubbish dumping grounds. Dredging was indispensable for maintaining Victoria Harbour's reputation as one of the best natural ports in the world, by keeping it deep and wide at all times. Without proper maintenance, Hong Kong could never have achieved its status as a leading entrepôt in the Asia Pacific region. Port development carried out at the end of the nineteenth century until the Japanese occupation, which included reclamation along the shorelines, pier erection, fairway dredging and typhoon shelter construction, bore witness to the modernisation of the city.

The invasion by the Japanese in 1941 put a temporary brake on the development cycle of Hong Kong, which began in the second half of the nineteenth century and continued until the first half of the twentieth century. The post-war reconstruction works coincided with a rapidly expanding population and ushered in a new phase of development.

Challenges for an Evolving City

122

123

1945-1982

New Land Formation

1. Post-War Works Departments

Port Works Division

From Civil Engineering Office to Engineering Development Department

2. Land Development Policy

Patrick Abercrombie's Urban Blueprint

Town Planning in the 1960s

Post-War Works Departments

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

3. New Satellite Towns

Kwun Tong

Tsuen Wan

Castle Peak (Tuen Mun)

Sha Tin

4. New Face of Victoria Harbour

New Typhoon Shelters

New Piers

Fairway Dredging

5. International Trading Port

Kwai Chung Container Terminal

Kai Tak Airport Reclamation. A

6. Summary

In August 1945, the Japanese occupying forces in Hong Kong surrendered to

the British military. When the Hong Kong government reassumed administrative powers from the British authorities on 1 May 1946, it had to start rebuilding the city immediately. The Public Works Department resumed its previous duties and commenced the work

of restoring the infrastructural facilities. In 1947, there were nine divisions/offices under the direction of the Public Works Department: Headquarters, Architectural, Buildings Ordinance, Crown Lands and Surveys, Drainage, Roads, Port Works, Electrical and Mechanical, and Waterworks 160. With the exception of the Waterworks Office, the

Electrical and Mechanical Office, and the Port Works Division, all the other units

were located at Lower Albert Road. For the first few years after the war, the emphasis of all the works offices was on the reconstruction of the city.

Port Works Division

By the late 1940s, the focus of the Port Works Division was still on port development and reclamation works. In the early years immediately after the war, its efforts were concentrated on the reconstruction of port facilities such as piers and seawalls. In 1948, the Port Works Division expanded its scope of work and assumed responsibility for the maintenance of Kai Tak Airport. In 1950, a Public Works Department Laboratory was set up within the division. It was responsible for the testing of engineering materials. During 1951-52, the Port Works Division also established a Colonial Development and Welfare Scheme to co-ordinate with the post-war colonial policy of the British government. The Port Works Division was involved in five major areas of work161. 1. Maintenance of seawalls and piers, and dredging work

2. Reclamation, construction of public piers and other port facilities

3. Routine supervision and design work for new projects

4. Material Testing Laboratory

127

Part I New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

5. Colonial Development and Welfare Scheme

During 1952, the Colonial Development and Welfare Scheme was abolished 162, but the other work areas remained largely unchanged until 1964163. In March 1958, a Development Division was created by the Public Works Department. It was responsible for site formation, public dumping ground management, large-scale land development planning, reclamation engineering works, as well as the development of districts such as Castle Peak and Sha Tin in the New Territories. The Development Division and the Port Works Division became the principal units responsible for the formation of new land and planning the utilisation of such resources. These divisions were entrusted with the vital task of the development of the New Territories.

From Civil Engineering Office to

Engineering Development Department

In 1964, four of the works offices/divisions within the Public Works Department

Roads, Drainage, Port Works and Development - were merged to form the Civil Engineering Office. Together with the offices of Waterworks, Crown Lands and Survey, Architectural, Buildings Ordinance, and Electrical and Mechanical, these six offices represented the major works subdepartments of the Public Works Department164. Of all of the works offices, the Civil Engineering Office was the largest. In 1964, it was responsible for all civil engineering works under the jurisdiction of the government, with the exception of waterworks projects. Its four main work areas were discharged by six units: the Port Works Division, the Development Division, the Roads and Drainage Division (organised into the three offices of Hong Kong, Kowloon and New Territories),

and the Traffic Engineering Division.

The civil engineering projects undertaken in Hong Kong followed the usual practice of contracting out the work, under the oversight of the Civil Engineering Office. Taskforces were appointed to handle some large-scale developments. In addition, the Civil Engineering Office was also responsible for the repair and maintenance of port facilities, the construction and maintenance of roads and drainage works, and the provision

of consultation services. The detailed responsibilities of the units under the Civil Engineering Office were as follows. The Port Works Division retained its former duties. It was responsible for the construction and maintenance of seawalls and piers, and the reclamation and dredging of Victoria Harbour. It also co-ordinated the development of Hong Kong Island and oversaw the public dumping grounds and privately funded port development work on the island. The work of the Development Division focused on Kowloon and the New Territories. It scrutinised development plans, carried out land formation works in the districts to be developed and supervised the public landfills. The Roads and

3.1 Panoramic view of Happy Valley and Causeway Bay in the early post-war years.

Drainage Division looked after the design, building and maintenance of all public road and drainage works in Hong Kong, and monitored all private works of the same nature to ensure their co-ordination with the public facilities. The division consisted

of three regional offices of Hong Kong, Kowloon and the New Territories. The Traffic Engineering Division designed road systems, installed and maintained traffic facilities, planned the distribution of public car parks, provided the police with technical data on traffic systems, furnished public transport operators such as bus and ferry companies with terminals and stops, and determined the public transport routes. During the 1960s, the Civil Engineering Office was the largest works subdepartment under the Public Works Department. In 1968, the Development Division set up a taskforce dedicated to the planning of the new town at Castle Peak, as well as its construction and liaison work. The scope of work of the Civil Engineering Office did not undergo significant changes before its reorganisation in 1969.

A restructuring exercise took place on 1 September 1969 which led to the establishment of a Highways Office in the Public Works Department. This office assumed responsibility for all road construction and maintenance works, while the Civil Engineering Office focused its efforts on port and land development. It was reorganised into three divisions: Port Works, Drainage Works, and Development and Airport. The work of the Port Works Division was largely unchanged. The Drainage Works Division combined the three offices of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and the New Territories into one and co-ordinated the drainage work for the whole of Hong Kong. The Development and Airport Division was responsible for the development and maintenance of Kai Tak Airport.

Challenges for an Evolving City

128

129

3.2

3.3

3.4

Panoramic view of Hong Kong urban areas shortly after the war.

Panoramic view of the districts stretching from Central to Causeway Bay from Victoria Peak in the 1940s.

Panoramic view of the districts stretching from Central to Causeway

Bay from Victoria Peak in the 1960s.

3.2

3.3

3.4

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

131

3.2

3.3

3.4

Panoramic view of Hong Kong urban areas shortly after the war.

Panoramic view of the districts stretching from Central to Causeway Bay from Victoria Peak in the 1940s.

Panoramic view of the districts stretching from Central to Causeway Bay from Victoria Peak in the 1960s.

3.2

3.3

3.4

Part III New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

131

Challenges for an Evolving City

3.5 Certain reclamation works were still performed manually after the war - reclamation at Nam Sang Wai in March 1962.

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

132

In 1978, the Engineering Development subdepartment within the Public Works Department assumed responsibilities for four major works offices: the Civil Engineering Office, the Electrical and Mechanical Office, the Highways Office and the Geotechnical Control Office. The Civil Engineering Office comprised the five divisions of Port Works, Development and Airport, Drainage Works, Railway and Consultants Management. Its principal areas of responsibilities included site formation, port construction and maintenance, drainage and sewerage systems.

The scope of work of the Engineering Development subdepartment grew rapidly. On 1 April 1982, it became an independent department upon the dissolution of the Public Works Department. The new Engineering Development Department had seven offices under its command. In addition to the original four offices, three new offices were added: Headquarters, Mass Transit and Railway Development. In August 1982, the Electrical and Mechanical Office was detached from the Engineering Developing Department to become an independent department.

From 1946 onwards, the size of the works offices in charge of port and land development expanded continuously. This is manifested by the establishment of the Development Division in 1958, and the creation of the Civil Engineering Office in 1964 via the merger of the four divisions of Port Works, Development, Road and Drainage. The work of the Civil Engineering Office broadened. Not only was it responsible for

port development and the exploitation of new land resources, but it also had to oversee

the units that provided support facilities such as drainage, electrical and mechanical, and roads. For the engineering works, the quality requirements become increasingly demanding. In the 1960s and the 70s, the Civil Engineering Office was by far the largest and most important works unit of the Public Works Department. This is not surprising, as from the 1960s onwards, the administration gave overriding priority

to the creation of residential and industrial land resources, in order to serve the needs of a rapidly growing population and assist the economic transformation from an entrepôt into a processing industry hub. Before the establishment of the New Territories Development Department in 1973, the Civil Engineering Office was assigned responsibility for the building of new towns and for making available new industrial and residential land to ease population pressure in the urban areas. The blueprints formulated for the new towns were the key driver behind the city's modernisation and had a direct bearing on Hong Kong's development direction in the 1960s and the 70s. The pace of development quickened in the 1970s and imposed increasingly

higher demand for infrastructural works. The work scope and nature of the engineering offices became more complex and led to the creation of more fully-fledged departments. In 1973, the planning and development responsibilities for the New Territories were transferred out of the Civil Engineering Office into the newly established New Territories

Development Department.

ין

133

Challenges for an Evolving City

134

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.6

Trucks depositing filling material at Chai Wai.

3.7

Pier construction at North Point carried out by the Civil Engineering Office. (1962)

3.8

Chai Wan reclamation in progress. (June 1962)

Land Development Policy

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

As early as the end of the nineteenth century, the overcrowded urban areas of Hong Kong badly affected the living environment and posed serious hygienic problems. In May 1935, the government appointed a Housing Commission to study the housing and population overcrowding problems 165. The commission released its findings in October 1938. The Secretary of the commission, W. H. Owen, recommended that new

resettlements be built in selected areas in the New Territories such as Sha Tin, Tsuen

Wan, Yuen Long, Tai Po and Fanling to ameliorate overcrowding in the urban districts1.

In order to develop these remote regions, the authorities first had to tackle the thorny issues of water supply, transportation, flood prevention and sewage disposal. Reclamation was required in some of the areas to provide suitable developable land. Hence, the administration was unable to implement the development plan of the New Territories immediately.

The government enacted the Town Planning Ordinance No 20 in 1939 and began preparations for the development of the New Territories for residential purpose. Unfortunately, the invasion by the Japanese in 1941 forced the government to shelve the plan. The rapid influx of immigrants in the post-war period resurrected the housing issue. Meanwhile, the world's political situation experienced drastic changes. Many colonies gained independence. The British government was forced to alter its colonial

policy and make positive efforts to improve Hong Kong's development. In 1945, the British Colonial Office established a Colonial Development and Welfare Scheme and earmarked £1,000,000 to assist Hong Kong's development over the next decade. As

a result, the Hong Kong government formulated its social economic development strategy, intended to define the direction of growth for the territory. The administration failed to determine whether to develop public housing or improve port facilities along the shores of Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon Peninsula as a means of revitalising the

economy,

3.9

Panoramic view of Wan Chai and Causeway Bay in 1955.

Patrick Abercrombie's Urban Blueprint

In November 1946, the renowned British town planner, Patrick Abercrombie,

was commissioned by the Hong Kong government to make recommendations regarding the direction of the city's development for the coming 50 years and draw up a blueprint167.

Patrick Abercrombie pointed out that the severe shortage of land in the central districts

and the unrelenting influx of migrants were the two major obstacles to the city's development. He promoted the concept of a Greater Hong Kong and advocated a balanced approach in developing the different districts. He called for the establishment of new comprehensive development areas to enhance the city's growth potential. This was the inevitable path that post-war Hong Kong had to follow. The recommendations made by Patrick Abercrombie

represented the basic development principles adopted by the Hong Kong government in the 1950s 68.

Abercrombie estimated that in 1948 Hong Kong had a population of 1.5 million 169.

The most densely populated area was in Sai Ying Pun on the northern shore of Hong Kong Island - bounded by Eastern Street to the east, Second Street to the south, Western Street to the west, and Connaught Road to the north - with a population density of 2,000 persons per acre. The second most congested district was Wan Chai: eastwards to Stewart Road; southwards along Hennessy Road through Fleming Road to Thomson

Road, and then through O'Brien Road on to Johnston Road; westwards to Luard Road; and northwards to Gloucester Road. This district recorded a density of 1,545 persons per acre. In the district of Sheung Wan - covering Hillier Street and Shing Wong Street

on the east, Hollywood Road on the south, Morrison Street on the west from Possession

Street via Bonham Strand, and Connaught Road on the north - a population density of

Challenges for an Evolving City

136

137

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

1,350 persons per acre was registered '70.

To alleviate population density in the overcrowded districts and accommodate the continuous influx of new migrants, Patrick Abercrombie proposed that harbour reclamation be carried out to create more land, provided that no damage was inflicted on the harbour. At the time, there was minimum developable land on Hong Kong Island, and allowed very limited scope for the undertaking of reclamation on the island's north shore. Reclamation could only be carried out eastwards from Kennedy Town in the west to North Point, a long and narrow strip that afforded restricted scope for development. The hilly area in North Point could yield 100 acres of land and provide accommodation for up to 50,000 workers from Taikoo Dockyard. It was possible to convert Pokfulam, a pasture area in the 1940s, into a residential district, but this would require considerable engineering activity. As for the heavily populated area of Aberdeen, the critical issue of water supply had to be dealt with before further development was possible. After considering Hong Kong's post-war development of land resources, Abercrombie felt that the immediate requirements could be satisfied by giving top development priority to the Kai Tak area in Kowloon. He proposed that the area be established as a comprehensive development district, with 0.75 acres of space per 1,000 persons to be reserved for community facilities such as shops, medical clinics, schools, parks, etc., and with a projected population density of 285 persons per acre. The district was to be equipped with emerging industries, high quality dwellings, shops, leisure and recreation space, clinics and schools. It could attract residents from the congested districts on the northern shore of Hong Kong Island. If Hong Kong were to achieve an overall population density of 500 persons per acre, it would call for the relocation of 156,670 people from Hong Kong Island and 29,250 people from Kowloon.

Considering the city's long-term land development plan, Patrick Abercrombie identified the Kowloon Peninsula as the key region to be developed in subsequent decades. Most of the New Territories was to be kept unchanged to preserve its natural resources and act as the urban city's hinterland. This region would provide food, fresh water, space for outdoor activities and recreation establishments. Here, aggressive development was to be avoided. Tsuen Wan and Gin Drinkers Bay were the only districts in the New Territories qualified for development into new satellite towns. As regards the Kowloon Peninsula, Kwun Tong and Hung Hom were the districts that could yield additional land through reclamation, while Homantin East, Kowloon Tsai East, Kowloon Tong West, Castle Peak Road and Kai Tak North could be used after site formation works. The nine new districts, including Tsuen Wan and Gin Drinkers Bay in the New Territories, would provide 1,993 acres of new land in the centre of the city, capable of sustaining a population of about 600,000 people. This equates to a density of just 302 persons per acre, a level much more reasonable than the figure of 2,000 persons per acre registered in the crowded urban regions.

Table 3.1 Population Distribution in New Areas - Patrick Abercrombie's

Urban Blueprint

Location

Homantin East

Kowloon Tsai East

Kowloon Tong West

Area (acre)

Capacity

Population ('000 persons)

200

325

92.7

275

78.5

Castle Peak Road

125

35.6

Kwun Tong Reclamation Area

175

Hung Hom Reclamation Area

150

Gin Drinkers Bay

200

Tsuen Wan

193

Kai Tak North

350

100

Total

1,993

600.8

Source:

Abercrombie, Patrick, Hong Kong Preliminary Planning Report, Hong Kong Government, 1948, p.6.

In 1952, the Executive Council revised the Town Planning Ordinance and advocated an integrated development strategy for the undeveloped districts. Urbanisation was to take place gradually, based on Patrick Abercrombie's recommendations, with due regard to the government's fiscal capability and society's needs. When Abercrombie devised the outline development plan in September 1949, Hong Kong had a population of only 1.5 million. By 1953, the figure jumped to an estimated 2.25 million, owing to mass influxes of immigrants in the early 1950s. Patrick Abercrombie could not have foreseen such phenomenal growth in population. Most of the newly arrived refugees built makeshift dwellings in the hilly areas on Hong Kong Island or the Kowloon Peninsula, exacerbating the already serious housing problem in Hong Kong. In 1953, the number of people living in wooden huts in Kowloon reached the 300,000 mark11. A disastrous squatter

fire that struck the Shek Kip Mei in December of the same year forced the government to tackle the housing issue for the new immigrants. Faced with a sharply increasing population and severe land shortages in the 1950s and the 60s, the administration was no longer capable of implementing fully the reform measures recommended by Patrick Abercrombie172. It had to devise a new development strategy for the New Territories. The departments responsible for civil engineering activity also had to change their work plans to conform to the needs of society. The New Territories was the region that

experienced significant development changes.

Town Planning in the 1960s

In December 1958, the government formulated a 10-year town planning programme,

Challenges for an Evolving City

138

139

Challenges for an Evolving City

3.10

giving special emphasis to the development policy of new satellite towns 173. During the 1960s, town planning work came within the ambit of the Public Works Department. Besides the Public Works Department, the Town Planning Board was another important urban planning consultative body. The board was chaired by the Director of Public Works and consisted of eight official members and five non-official members. Another prominent town planning organisation was the Land Development Planning Committee. This committee was chaired by the Deputy Colonial Secretary and had seven official members. Under these two consultative bodies, a Planning Division was established within the Crown Lands and Survey Office to carry out the actual work. Urban development planning was performed at three levels 174:

1. Colony Outline Plan

2. Statutory Outline Zoning Plans

3. Departmental Plans

The Colony Outline Plan was first formulated under the charge of the Land Development Planning Committee. The Town Planning Board designed the blueprints

for the districts and made them legally binding, after receiving consent from the government. The blueprints were then submitted to the Land Development Planning Committee for approval, and passed on to the relevant offices under the Public Works Department for execution. Development projects in the urban areas were placed under the jurisdiction of the Director of Public Works, while the district officers supervised works carried

out in the New Territories. The Civil Engineering Office was the unit within the Public Works Department given the task of land formation. Before the establishment of the

New Territories Development Department in 1973, the Civil Engineering Office assumed

responsibility for the formulation of outline development plans for all new districts; the construction of roads, stormwater drains, sewerage systems, port works, reclamation

and the maintenance of all such facilities175.

140

3.11

3.10 Reclamation in progress at Cheung Sha Wan in May 1963.

3.11 Reclamation in progress at To Kwa Wan in May 1963.

3.12 Development of the Kowloon Peninsula began in earnest after the war. Reclamation

in progress at Hung Hom in May 1963.

3.12

New Satellite Towns

اسمية

3.13 The first and second stages of Kwun Tong reclamation were completed in 1959, yielding 33 hectares (82 acres) of land.

Part III

New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

Challenges for an Evolving City

142

The massive influx of immigrants in the 1950s and the 60s had a profound effect on the economic transformation of Hong Kong as it brought in enormous quantity of capital, professional expertise, as well as cheap labour. The resources provided by the rapidly expanding population led to the emergence of processing industries in Hong Kong. To give impetus to this new development direction, it was imperative to make new industrial districts available to the industries. The relief of population pressure and the promotion of industrial development became the administration's primary objectives in the 1950s. The government was forced to abandon strict adherence to Patrick Abercrombie's recommendation to build comprehensively planned districts.

Kwun Tong

Kwun Tong was chosen and developed into the first industrial district after the war for the following reasons:

1. Kwun Tong had been used as a public dumping round since the 1930s. This resulted in the creation of substantial new land, but with a population of just 1,000 in the

1950s 176

2. The hills north of Kwun Tong were composed of weathered rocks that were easy to level geologically. The rocks excavated could be used for the Kowloon Bay reclamation. 3. Kwun Tong was closely linked to urban Kowloon. Thus, it could gain access to the required social services from Kowloon, even if it was not a fully planned community. 4. The godowns and piers in the vicinity of Kwun Tong would facilitate cargo transportation

following improvements made to road system.

At the end of 1954, the government allocated HK$10 million from the Hong Kong Development Funds to develop Kwun Tong. It also appointed a Kwun Tong Affairs Advisory Committee in 1956 to report on development progress. In May 1956, an Executive Council working committee proposed that 244 acres of new land be formed in Kwun Tong: 45 hectares (111 acres) was designated for industrial use and would

result in the building of 19 blocks of industrial units with sizes ranging from 930 square metres to 1,860 square metres; 34 hectares (84 acres) would be made available to build 1,080 residential units; 15 hectares (37 acres) was to be used for resettlement

estates; and the balance of 5 hectares (12 acres) was for commercial use. The plan projected that 90,000 people would be housed in the first five years, with the number rising to 200,000 within 10 years. The projected population density was in excess of 3,000 per hectare, that is, approximately 1,214 persons per acre. The development programme was unveiled in the same year, with the aim of making Kwun Tong a community with a capacity to support a population of 120,000 persons 177. Reclamation started immediately; the first and second stages were completed in the middle of

1959 and created 33 hectares (82 acres), with the third stage reclamation work commencing

in the same year. From 1956 to 1966, a total of 641 acres of new land was made

available. This was 397 acres more than the original estimates of 244 acres.

Of the new land created, 154 acres was put to industrial use. The authorities

leased out the land to private developers for a term of 20 years as from 1 July 1955, renewable for a further 20 years. The land purchasers were allowed to pay either by a single payment or over 20 years with interest at the rate of 5 per cent per annum. In the 10 years between April 1956 and March 1966, the government received land premiums totalling HK$97 million from the sale of reclaimed land in Kwun Tong, representing 11.3 per cent of total land sale revenue over that period. By March 1972, revenue from Kwun Tong's reclaimed land rose to HK$120 million, excluding the principal sums receivable from the land sold. This was equivalent to 7.7 per cent of total land revenue for the corresponding period178. Over the same period, total expenditure on developing Kwun Tong came to HK$116.4 million. It included site formation cost incurred in relation to the Kwun Tong industrial district, Yau Tong,

Kowloon Bay and the residential areas, transport facilities, etc. Non-recurring expenditure on the Kwun Tong industrial district amounted to approximately HK$50 million only. This demonstrates the lucrative returns generated from Kwun Tong's 17-year reclamation.

143

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

3.14 Active development of the Kwun Tong industrial district, with reclamation and factory building construction taking place

simultaneously. (December 1962)

The number of factories established in the Kwun Tong reclamation area rose from 100 in 1961 to 808 by 1970, with a compounded annual growth rate of 26.1 per cent. The number of workers grew at an annual rate of 19.1 per cent and climbed from 15,000 to 72,300 over the same period. The growth rates were considerably higher than the rates achieved for the whole of Hong Kong between 1961 and 1972. During the period in question, the overall rates of increase were 11.7 per cent and 7.8 per cent for factories and workers respectively. In 1971, there were over 1,600 factory establishments in Kwun Tong179, representing 8.4 per cent of Hong Kong's total and higher than Tsuen Wan's share of 7 per cent. Most of the establishments were engaged in clothing, textiles and machinery manufacturing industries. According to 1971 statistics, the value of goods produced by factories in Kwun Tong made up 18.25 per cent of the HK$18.048 billion worth of goods produced in Hong Kong, reaching HK$3.294 billion. Of the goods produced in Kwun Tong, 61.74 per cent (HK$2.034 billion) were exported, with the balance of 38.26 per cent (HK$1.26 billion) sold locally. Ninety-two per cent of the factory establishments in Kwun Tong were locally owned 180.

The concentration of factories in Kwun Tong had attracted an influx of low- income families. They provided the labour-intensive processing industries with a cheap source of labour. Private developers then moved in and developed Kwun Tong. According to data from the Public Works Department, sums totalling HK$165.38 million and HK$156.02 million were invested by the private sector in the construction of residential units in 1964 and 1971 respectively. Private investments in industrial buildings and warehouses totalled HK$434.84 million in 1964 and HK$394.15 million in 1971. These

sums far exceeded the amounts expended by the government.

Beginning in 1959, a total of six resettlement estates were constructed in Kwun Tong. From the late 1960s Kwun Tong became part of urban Kowloon, equipped to support a population of 500,000181. By 1971, a total of 452,836 people lived in Ngau Tau Kok and Lei Yue Mun 82. These resettlement estates provided 56,818 housing units capable of accommodating 258,814 residents 183. Approximately 76.4 per cent of the population of Ngau Tau Kok and Lei Yue Mun (345,846) lived in public housing developments: 57 per cent residing in resettlement estates and 19 per cent in low-cost housing estates. This figure represented 28.4 per cent of the territorywide public-housing population 184. In 1971, Kwun Tong was already a densely populated industrial district, compared with the populations of 275,551 in Tsuen Wan and 129,048 in Yuen Long. Between 1961 and 1971, the population of Ngau Tau Kwok and Lei Yue Mun grew by 457 per cent - from 81,293 to 452,836, with an average growth rate of 18.7 per cent per annum. Over the corresponding period, the population of Tsuen Wan rose by 225.6 per cent, from 84,823 to 275,551, at an annual growth rate of 12.5 per cent 185.

In the 1970s, most of the social services in Kwun Tong were provided by religious

188

and voluntary bodies. According to a survey carried out in April 1971, there were only two government schools (one primary and one secondary) among the 129 day schools in Kwun Tong. The rest were grant schools or subsidised schools run by religious or volunteer organisations18%. In 1975, 83 per cent of the students in Kwun Tong were educated at schools operated by these agencies 187. In the area of health services, of the 70 medical clinics operating in Kwun Tong at the end of 1971, 43 were run by business concerns and 24 by religious or voluntary agencies. There were only three government clinics. Even United Christian Hospital was funded by a Protestant organisation' With regard to social welfare services, government-funded community centres did not appear on the scene until 1969. Of the 44 social welfare centres operating in Kwun Tong in 1971, most of them were affiliated with either religious or volunteer organisations, with just eight run by the government 189. In the early years, the factories in Kwun Tong district had to face labour shortages, as well as water and electricity supply problems" With community support facilities unable to match its population, the development of Kwun Tong only succeeded in relieving the mounting population pressures and providing cheap labour for the processing industries in the 1960s and the 70s. It failed to grow into another core district of the city.

•

190

The development of new districts could not fully remove the pressure on the city nucleus. Therefore, the administration had to persist with development in the central part of the City of Victoria. Significant reclamation activity was undertaken in districts

on Hong Kong Island such as Central in the north, North Point and Quarry Bay in the east, and Kennedy Town in the west. Such reclamation allowed expansion of the core districts along their existing boundaries, while the northern part of Hong Kong Island and the southern end of the Kowloon Peninsula maintained their pre-eminent status.

Challenges for an Evolving City

144

145

3.15 By 1966, Kwun Tong was already a well populated industrial district

with 250,000 residents.

3.16 Land totalling 641 acres was produced in Kwun Tong by reclamation.

Panoramic view of the Kwun Tong industrial district in 1960.

3.17 Cargo loading and unloading along the shores of Kwun Tong

(February 1972)

い

3.16

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

3.17

3.15

Tsuen Wan

To divert people from the densely populated urban areas, it was imperative that land development be stepped up in the New Territories. Before the formation of the New Territories Development Department in August 1973, such responsibility fell

upon the Public Works Department. The relevant works offices under the Public Works Department were required to plan and execute the programmes in accordance with their specialities, as well as co-ordinating with other government departments such as the Housing Department and the Resettlement Department to determine the development emphasis in the new districts. In the 1960s, the Port Works Division and the Development Division under the Civil Engineering Office played vital roles in developing land resources in the New Territories. The blueprints for Tsuen Wan in the 1950s and Sha Tin in the

147

3.18

Challenges for an Evolving City.

148

1960s were drawn up by the Development Division.

In the 1950s, land was in short supply on Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon Peninsula and prices rose sharply. As a result, investors gradually turned their attention to the New Territories. Tsuen Wan, a distance of 14 kilometres (8.5 miles) from Tsim Sha Tsui, had a population of just over 5,000 in the 1930s11. As there were anchorage facilities near Tsuen Wan and it was not far from the city nucleus, Tsuen Wan was equally accessible by land or water. The district was close to Shing Mun Reservoir

and was already supplied with electricity installed by the government earlier. With the utility infrastructure in place, Tsuen Wan had immense potential as an industrial district. Hence, it was designated for strategic development 192.

At that time, Tsuen Wan was known as Gin Drinkers Bay. The peninsula was mountainous, with land rising to a height of up to 400 feet. The town centre was split up due to the hilly terrain; therefore, massive reclamation was required for its development. The government planned for three centres in Tsuen Wan district: Tsuen Wan, Tsing Yi and Kwai Chung. In 1954, the works divisions of the Public Works Department began reclamation and site formation works in Tsuen Wan Bay, with 121 acres (49 hectares) of land formed by 1957193. The same year saw the completion of Tai Lam Chung Reservoir

and the laying of underwater water pipelines to Kowloon, forging closer links between Tsuen Wan and the urban areas 94. In 1959, the administration endorsed the blueprint for Tsuen Wan with the aim of developing Tsuen Wan into a one-million-strong community. The importance of Tsuen Wan was boosted by the colony's long-term development plan formulated in 1961. Between 1969 and 1976, an additional 306 acres (124 hectares) of land was reclaimed from Gin Drinkers Bay195, enhancing the area of Tsuen Wan to 6,000 acres (2,428 hectares), a size that was larger than the Kowloon Peninsula south of Boundary Street 196.

Running east to west along the Tsuen Wan section of Castle Peak Road, the vast expanse of land stretching from Tai Wo Hau to Chai Wan Kok was created by

reclamation and became the town centre of Tsuen Wan. Gin Drinkers Bay was reclaimed

3.19

3.20

3.18 Panoramic view of Tsuen Wan

satellite town.(1960)

3.19 Gin Drinkers Bay Landfill in No- vember 1962, around present- day Kwai Chung Road.

3.20 Bird's eye view of Tsuen Wan

satellite town in the 1960s. Rec-

lamation that ended in 1958

generated 120 acres of land.

to build public housing estates, and factories were established all over north Kwai Chung. By 1961, the population in Tsuen Wan exceeded 80,000 and the district had about 247 factory establishments. In the same year, 20 per cent of Hong Kong's total industrial workforce worked in Tsuen Wan. In 1966, a total of 105,000 people resided

in Tai Wo Hau and Kwai Chung estates, two of the main public housing developments in Tsuen Wan. In 1961-62, the 108 textile factories in Tsuen Wan and Kwai Chung employed a total of 25,000 workers. Two years later, the number of factories and workers rose to 144 and 26,000 respectively 197. In 1974, the major industries operating in Tsuen Wan included apparel, plastics, metal, electronics and textiles. The population of the whole district of Tsuen Wan grew to about 270,000 in 1971198, with the majority residing in public housing units. Compared with Kwun Tong, the development of Tsuen Wan was more balanced, with new leisure and recreational facilities such as Gin Drinkers

Bay Park and Tsuen Wan Town Hall, which offered a wide variety of cultural and

entertainment activities.

SAN HUIR

AREA 12 RECLAMATION

CHANNEL

TSUEN WAN

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

Challenges for an Evolving City

150

Castle Peak (Tuen Mun)

Following the establishment of the two industrial districts in Kwun Tong and Tsuen Wan, the government pressed ahead with its exploration for more industrial land resources. In December 1957, it envisaged large-scale reclamation works in Castle Peak. In 1959, the consultants, Scott & Wilson, Kirkpatrick & Partners, unveiled the reclamation plan for Castle Peak Bay and proposed that Castle Peak be developed into a new satellite town to support a population of 285,000. In 1960, interest in the Castle Peak development programme was rekindled in the wake of the ever-rising demand for residential and industrial land in Castle Peak. In December 1961, the authorities

completed the preliminary development outline for Castle Peak and laid the ground work for accelerated development of the area by building a river bridge and causeway across the Castle Peak Bay at Tuen Mun San Hui, a 1,700-foot-long bund, and a water

supply system for the area.

The eventual scale of development at Castle Peak was naturally far greater

than the infrastructural works planned in 1961. In September 1963, the Public Works Department performed another round of on-site investigations, with the focus placed on evaluating reclamation problems and sourcing fill material. Exploratory ground investigations were carried out on the nearby seabed and mountains. In April 1964, the project liaison team canvassed views from the relevant departments concerned and the private sector was given access to the research study data.

In general, the cost of reclamation is largely determined by the geological characteristics of the seabed and its depth, the coastline configuration and the availability of fill material from nearby hills. The Castle Peak reclamation involved the following

work:

AREA

RESETTLE

ESTATE

CAUSEWAY

OLD

FISH PONDS.

CHA

EXISTING

INDUST

AREA RESIDENTIAL

3.21

3.22

3.21 Blueprint for the first stage development of Castle Peak (present-day Tuen Mun) in 1964.

3.22 Sketch plan for the first stage development of western Castle Peak in 1964. Land formed included 171 acres of lowlying areas, 463 acres of hilly ground and 407 acres of re- claimed land, totalling 1,041 acres.

151

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

3.23 Bird's eye view of Castle Peak satellite town in 1972.

1. To decide on the future of the two existing beaches;

2. To construct a 106-acre typhoon anchorage;

3. To build 5,200 feet of seawall for cargo handling and a passenger ferry berth.

As there were no past occurrences of storm surges during typhoons, flooding was not an important consideration when determining the reclamation levels. The deciding factor was, in fact, sewerage requirements 199. An estimated 11 million cubic yards of fill material was required for the reclamation, plus another 5.5 million cubic yards for building up the lowlying areas. The consultants attempted to utilise the seabed material

as fill but found it to be unsuitable. Eventually they found a suitable fill from the surrounding hills lying to the west, northwest and north of Castle Peak Bay. The silt and clay in the seabed in Castle Peak Bay was softer than similar materials found at

other reclamation sites, and the soft layer was quite deep. Precautionary measures were required to avoid seabed slips and the formation of mud-waves during reclamation. The Castle Peak reclamation scheme could not draw on the experience gained from the Gin Drinkers Bay project due to differing geological profiles. The water depths at Castle Peak Bay were much shallower. The report recommended that a blanket layer of granular material be placed on the seabed, which would also accelerate the settlement rate. To guard against slips, barges were to be used to deposit the fill material in a series of shallow layers so as to minimise disturbance of the silt surface.

The report released in November 1964 recommended the development of 1,041 acres of land in Castle Peak into a new satellite town capable of supporting a population of one million. This area of land was to be made up of 171 acres of existing lowlying areas, 463 acres of hilly ground and 407 acres of reclaimed land. The land. utilisation was as follows: resettlement estates (179 acres), other low-cost government

housing (58 acres), private residential development (335 acres), industrial development (379 acres), central area (34 acres), government, institutional and community area (31 acres), and formed open space (25 acres). With an estimated cost of HK$432 million, the average cost per square foot was HK$9.50. It was conservatively estimated that HK$470 million could be generated from future land sales, and the development programme would span 10 years 200

The development of Castle Peak occurred at almost the same time as that of Sha Tin. The first stage of reclamation commenced in 1966 and yielded 220 acres of land201. On 15 July 1966, the Town Planning Board discussed the development plans. for the two new satellite towns at Sha Tin and Castle Peak, and the Castle Peak proposal came under heavy criticism from the indigenous villagers. The Heung Yee Kuk felt

that the government had not conducted adequate consultations. As a result, the administration made significant amendments to the railway blueprint for that area202.

The development of public housing in the Castle Peak area was regarded as a pilot project for the territory's public housing scheme. In 1968, construction works began on San Fat Estate, a project that was designed to house 11,000 people. By the end of the 1970s, four large-scale public housing developments had been completed in support of the 10-year housing programme announced by the government in 1973, which expanded the number of units to be built to accommodate an additional 158,000 people. Out of a population of 483,600 living in the Castle Peak area, 344,000 resided

in public housing estates.

In 1971, reclamation was carried out at Castle Peak Bay to boost the new land

total to 809 hectares, with 101 hectares already developed. The most critical part of

153

development was in transport network, as vividly represented by Castle Peak Road which ran from Tsuen Wan and passed through the east Castle Peak area. Also, the

road that extended westwards from the town centre to Pillar Point (Mong Hau Shek)

and Tap Shek Kok also assisted the development of the area. The well-developed road

network had facilitated the construction of large-scale infrastructure such as the desalter

plant and Castle Peak Power Station within the district.

The Castle Peak development project was used as a testing ground for early town planning. The government incorporated views from professional engineers, architects, town planners and other professionals, as well as input from the relevant government departments. It then devised an integrated plan for the development of new satellite towns.

3.24 Sha Tin in 1961 was full of paddy fields. In the upper right corner is Yuen Chau Kok Island (present-day Tai Chong Kiu Road). The railway running

between Pai Tau Village and Fo Tan could be seen clearly in the left hand corner.

Challenges for an Evolving City

154

Sha Tin

In the old days, Sha Tin was called "Thorn Garden", as it was originally an

uninhabited area filled with thorn bushes in earlier times. Its name changed to Lek

Yuen, as limpid water flowed down from the headwaters of the Shing Mun River.

Eventually the name of Sha Tin was adopted since the plain along the banks of the

river already had villages with names such as Sha Tin Wai and Sha Tin Tau. One

folktale had it that after the British leased the New Territories in 1898, the British

forces renamed Lek Yuen as Sha Tin by error when they misunderstood the information given by villagers from Sha Tin Wai. Another source alleged that the name "Sha Tin" first appeared in the 1866 map of Xinan district drawn by the Italian priest Father Simeone Volanteri203. Both alleged origins are wrong. The district was already named Sha Tin in the early nineteenth century, or even earlier. This name appeared in maps along with places like Tai Po Market, Lam Tsuen, Ting Kok, Tsuen Wan and Sai Kung 204.

The district of Sha Tin is surrounded by hills on three sides, with only the north side facing the sea. A small and narrow plain is located in the middle, formed

by the banks of the Shing Mun River and the shores of the inlet and small bays. The topography of Sha Tin is basically hilly. It is located in the southeastern part of the

New Territories. To its south are Beacon Hill, Lion Rock and Tate's Cairn, which are

contiguous with Shek Kip Mei, Kowloon Tong, San Po Kong and Tsz Wan Shan in Kowloon. To its east is Ma On Shan, which borders Sai Kung. To its northeast is Tai Po, and Kwai Chung and Tsuen Wan are to its west205. It encompasses an area of 69.22 square kilometres 206.

At the beginning, agriculture, forestry and, to a lesser extent, fishery were the main sources of income for Sha Tin residents. Up until 1941, people in Sha Tin were mainly engaged in agricultural activity including the cultivation of rice, cash crops and vegetables, poultry rearing, supplemented by the cutting and sale of firewood. Some residents along the sea and river lived off shrimp catching and fishing207. The local economy only started to take off after 1950, stimulated by a greatly enlarged

population and capital inflows.

In 1911, Sha Tin had a population of just 3,819208; the figure rose to 4,156 in 1921, representing an average annual growth rate of just 0.8 per cent over the 10-year period. The population then grew very rapidly and climbed to 20,000 by 1961209. The increase was largely attributed to the massive influx of Chinese immigrants; they not only boosted the workforce, but also brought in new working capital. This new economic impetus played a very significant part in transforming the economy of Sha Tin.

The first reclamation in Sha Tin was undertaken privately out of economic

3.25 Panoramic view of Sha Tin in 1962 before its development.

3.26 Sha Tin in 1972, with reclamation in progress. Siu Lek Yuen is in the right of the photo with the Shing Mun River taking shape.

The Sha Tin reclamation produced 864 hectares (2,135 acres) of land.

3.25

Challenges for an Evolving City

3.26

Part III New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

necessity, and not by the government. Liu Rui, a Hong Kong-born resident of Taishan origin, returned to Hong Kong in 1949 after studying in the United States. In 1950, he recognised that the economies of Hong Kong and Sha Tin were ready to take off. Believing that industrial and commercial activity would blossom in Sha Tin in the near future, he decided to fill up the 150,000 square feet of seaside paddy fields owned by his father210 that were adjacent to the Sha Tin railway station, and converted it into a new market for commercial and industrial use. His plan was to build 120 two-storey

village houses together with streets-Centre, Nos 1, 2, 3 and 4-next to the Sha Tin train station and southeast of the Kowloon-Canton Railway line. Shops occupied the ground floors of the houses, with the upper floors used for residential purpose2. The

houses were available for sale or lease.

Development began in 1950 after receiving approval from the Sha Tin District Office. By 1951, sixty of the planned houses were built in front of Centre Street, with

the remaining 60 erected at the back of Centre Street between 1952 and 1953. It took some time to resolve the problems of water and electricity supply and sewage disposal. By 1956, the Sha Tin Market evolved into a fairly modernised facility. Its completion enabled residents to obtain all their daily necessities in one place.

In the 1950s, Sha Tin was included in the list of districts earmarked for development. A taskforce was appointed in 1954 to study the development potential of Sha Tin. It recommended that the district be developed into a new satellite town to support a 270,000-strong population. Reclamation was the key to Sha Tin's transformation into a major new satellite town. The initial plan entailed the filling of the valley northeast of the Shing Mun River's downstream area. Reclamation was to be carried out in two

phases, with an estimated yield of 239 hectares (590 acres) of land. The commercial

district was to be located at the town centre, with the outer boundaries of the town

surrounded by high-density residential and industrial districts. In 1959, experts were commissioned by the Public Works Department to carry out exploratory work on the Sha Tin development project212. Their preliminary assessment was that, of the 590 acres of land to be developed, 345 acres had to be acquired through reclamation. To

prevent flooding along the coast during high tides, the consultants proposed the construction

of a bund at the lower Sha Tin Valley, with a maximum crest level of 28 feet above the Principal Datum (PD).

On 26 March 1960, the Town Planning Board re-evaluated the plan for the Sha Tin reclamation. It found that the experts' recommendations of filling the Sha Tin Valley and the subsequent construction of a bund to hold back high tides were impracticable.

Flooding in the valley could occur for reasons other than tidal currents; rainstorms presented a greater danger. The mere filling of the valley also posed serious consequences for the sewerage system. In the end, the government decided to raise the height of reclamation to minimise the risk of flooding. The blueprint for Sha Tin's development

was redrafted in 1961. The revised plan was markedly different from the 1954 plan,

with special emphasis on environmental design. Under the revised plan, the Shing Mun River flowed through the heart of the new town, with schools, temples and low- density housing, as well as enhanced rest and recreation space213 built along the riverbanks. The areas of Fo Tan and Tai Wai were to become light industry districts as they were

already home to many industrial establishments. The plan envisaged that the Sha Tin new town could accommodate a population of 360,000. In addition to land use zoning for the various districts, the blueprint also dealt with matters such as railway route and roads, schools, markets and other public facilities. It was projected that half of

Sha Tin's working population would be able to work within the locality.

The 1961 proposal came under attack from the Hong Kong Institute of Architects and the Tsim Sha Tsui District Kaifong Welfare Association. They criticised the new

blueprint for failing to preserve Sha Tin's unique features as a countryside area in the 1960s and called on the government to create a better environment within the town centre and to provide additional open space. Such demands ran counter to the objective of the plan to build dwelling units in large quantities, and the development project was stymied for a second time. In 1961, the Development Division conducted detailed studies of the Sha Tin plan, and the project was reviewed at the twenty-first meeting of the Land Development Planning Committee held in 1962. It was proposed that discussions

156

157

3.27 View of Pai Tau Village (present-day Sha Tin KCR station) in 1972.

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

Challenges for an Evolving City

158

be held on the reclamation method and fill material used.

The feasibility report prepared by the Development Division pointed out that the major difficulty involved in Sha Tin reclamation was the frequent occurrences of storm surge along the shores of Tolo Harbour during the passage of typhoons. The most severe typhoons, such as those passing through Hong Kong in 1874, 1906 and 1937, had triggered storm surges in Tolo Harbour. The most destructive storm surge

occurred took place when Typhoon Wanda lashed Hong Kong between 30 August and

2 September 1962. The Sha Tin Market was overwhelmed with floodwaters within a short period of time, which resulted in the loss of 150 lives214. Along the shores of Hong Kong Island, the water level usually rose to a maximum of 13 feet above PD, but could touch 16 feet above PD during a typhoon. When Tolo Harbour was hit by the most severe typhoon, it was possible for the general water level to rise to 21 feet above PD, a full eight feet higher than the 13-foot level registered along the shores of Hong Kong Island during high tides. And the wave crest level could even rise to 25

feet above PD. On 1 September 1962, in the midst of the onslaught by Typhoon Wanda, the highest water level reached in Sha Tin was only 16.5 feet. The town centre was already immersed in floodwaters even at this relatively low level. To afford absolute protection at all locations against storm surge, the reclamation would have to be implemented on the basis of a maximum water level of 25 feet; but the project cost would escalate drastically. Eventually, the Acting Director of Public Works proposed level of 16 feet for the reclamation, four feet higher than the existing level. It was also recommended

that a wavebreak, up to a height of 20 feet above PD, be built along the front of the seawalls and other high-risk areas. The government was also advised to build a tidal

model based on the tidal surge conditions in Tolo Harbour for in-depth studies. In addition, the reclamation had to allow for the funnelling effect when narrowing the inlet of the valley, as it could aggravate flooding. The Development Division thus

advised that the reclamation be commenced at a wider section of the inlet of the Sha

Tin Valley. Fo Tan was selected as the limit of the main reclamation along the valley.

Additional reclamation was carried out on the northeast side of the valley to create space for improvements to Tai Po Road, and on the southeast side for a sewage treatment

works.

An estimated 14 million cubic yards of fill material was required to reclaim the Sha Tin Valley, with another eight million cubic yards to raise the levels of the lowlying areas. The authorities carried out soil drilling works in the nearby areas and encountered no rock. This allowed the reclamation project to obtain all the required soft fill material from the neighbouring hillsides. The project also had to use large quantities of rocks for the foundations, seawalls, roads, culverts and the making of

concrete.

In a normal reclamation project, the fill material is transported to the work sites by trucks, conveyor belts or hydraulic pipelines. For the Sha Tin reclamation, the use of trucks was to be kept to a minimum to avoid traffic congestions. As the seabed

along the shores of Sha Tin was covered with soft marine mud and the coastal locations

were rather shallow, it was not possible to use barges to dump the fill material. To remove moisture content quickly and accelerate settlement, a new technique was employed. It involved the insertion of 4-inch cardboard drains into the ground. Through capillary action, the small holes passing through the drains would drain water out from the marine mud. Only three months were required to achieve a level of settlement that would normally take five to 10 years.

In July 1963, the government deliberated over the implementation of the Sha Tin development plan. In the Outline Development Plan unveiled in 1965, the extent of reclamation was amended in view of the rising population trend. The revised plan incorporated more high-density housing to satisfy pressing needs. The work was to be implemented in four phases over a period of 15 years, and would support a population of 1.09 million and produce new land amounting to 864 hectares (2,135 acres), of which 94 hectares (232 acres) was to be used to build 540,000 low-income dwelling

159

3.28 Panoramic view of Sha Tin

in 1976. The yet-to-be- developed Yuen Chau Kok Island could just be seen

in the far distance.

Part II New Land Formation (1945-1982)

Challenges for an Evolving City

160

units. The planned population density was 5,560 persons per hectare (2,250 persons per acre), with 10 per cent of the district reserved for public recreation and greening purposes. The first phase of the project revolved around the Shing Mun River and the feng shui hill in Yuen Chau Kok and yielded 243 hectares of new land. The major

areas of work were drainage, reclamation and water supply, and the authorities had to co-ordinate all aspects of work including cost control. Upon completion of the first stage of reclamation, the developed area could accommodate 350,000 people.

The second stage of development commenced in November 1971. In 1973, the

government reformulated the 10-year plan for Sha Tin. The plan covered various aspects: land levelling works; construction of railway, public housing, schools, hospitals, police stations and other public facilities; and land resumptions. Of the estimated project cost of HK$2.396 billion, $1.668 billion was expended on new public facilities, with the balance of HK$728 million spent on engineering works. The 1973 blueprint covered

an area of 4,063 acres of land, 2,500 acres of which was located at the town centre to

be used for the construction of leisure and recreational facilities, roads, train stations,

hospitals and a racecourse.

In 1973-1974, before the launch of the 10-year housing programme, the Sha Tin development was progressing at a very slow pace. The first stage of construction was not even completed by 1973. It was only after 1974 that the administration focused its attention on Sha Tin, spurred by urgent demand for more land to relieve population pressures. In 1976, the government refined its plan in respect of the erection of public housing estates and land utilisation in new towns, as well as the overall land development strategy for towns. A blueprint that largely resembled present-day Sha Tin's layout was drawn up in 1977, and an outline plan for the development of Ma On Shan was also formulated in the same year.

During the 1980s, the district of Sha Tin underwent significant development which led to the formation of several industrial areas by the early 1980s: Fo Tan, Tai Wai, Siu Lek Yuen and Shek Mun215. The major business types were textiles and clothing,

electronics, metals and toys; with Fo Tan also being home to many warehouses and cold storage establishments216. Sha Tin was transformed into a modern town, bustling with business enterprises and industrial activity.

Land generated in the New Territories was used for industrial development, the construction of public housing estates and the provision of social services and public facilities to support the expanding population. Districts that were developed in the early 1970s concentrated on the provision of industrial land and public housing units. It was only in the mid-1970s that consideration was given to the development of comprehensive communities217. Younger and lower-income people, compared with residents of the more established areas, generally populated the newly developed districts. In 1977, 15 per cent of the households in Kwun Tong had an average monthly income exceeding HK$2,000, against the low figure of 1.4 per cent for Tuen Mun218. The concentration of the city's working class in the new districts was due to the government's failure to make facilities available to bolster employment opportunities within the district, and to provide adequately for education, medical care, leisure and recreation, and community services.

The implementation of full-scale development of public housing estates and the construction of related public facilities in the New Territories required relocation of indigenous residents. In the early years, the administration used farmland value as the basis for determining monetary compensation. This formula was criticised by the villagers as they believed that it undervalued their land. Subsequently, the government launched the Land Exchange Entitlement Plan. Under this plan, the villagers were given land exchange entitlement deeds (later renamed as land exchange entitlements) in exchange for land resumed. The holders of these entitlements were allowed to use them to exchange for new land within the developed areas. These entitlements were also transferable, thus making them a valuable property. Their values were allowed to fluctuated in accordance with market forces and gradually the indigenous villagers accepted these entitlements as fair compensation219. The compensation issue was one

161

Table 3.2 Population Distribution - Main Districts of Hong Kong (1961-1981)

Table 3.3 Population Density-Main Districts of Hong Kong (1961-1981)

1961

1966

1971

Hong Kong Island

Kowloon

New Kowloon*

Of which:

Population % Population %

1,004,875 34% 1,030,970 29%

725,177 24% 690,180 19%

852,849 28% 1,342,650 37%

Population

996,183 26%

716,272

19%

1,468,699 38%

1976

Population%

1,026,870

749,600

1,617,260

1981

1961

1966

1971

1976

(unit: pesons per sq km)

1981

Population

24% 1,183,621

24%

Hong Kong Island

Density

13,303

4.6

Times Density Times

13,657

3.9

Times Density

12,933

3.4

Times Density

13,319

3.2

Density Times

15,281

3.2

17% 799,123

37% 1,651,064

Of which:

16%

Wan Chai

34%

Kowloon

209,179

75,539

162,428 46.6

70,312 20.2

112,621

78,711

98,058

83,104

23.3 101,072 21.2

19.8

87,022 18.3

Of which:

Lei YuAe Mun &

Ngau Tau Kok

81,293

251,680

452,836 11.70%

584,770

13%

Mong Kok

134,769

Kwun Tong (Jordon

New Kowloon

27,615

46.4

9.5

108,619 31.1

40,716 11.7

173,723

39,489

46.3

10.5

159,387

44,971

37.9

10.7

161,041

45,154

33.8

9.5

Valley, Yau Tong &

610,555

12%

Of which:

Kwun Tong)

Lei Yue Mun &

New Territories

409,945

14%

542,600 15%

675,582

18% 950,060

22% 1,303,005

26%

6,228

2.1

5.2

Ngau Tau Kok

Of which:

Kwun Tong

Tsuen Wan, Tsing Yi

84,823

& Ma Wan

205,700 6%

New Territories

57,708

747

15.4

0.2

76,477

1,044

18.2

0.2

73,184

1,426

15.4

0.3

Of which:

Tsuen Wan New Town

Other areas in Tsuen Wan

268,669

6,882

0.20%

452,490

7,800

10% 599,011

0.18% 7,853

12%

0.16%

Tsuen Wan, Tsing Yi &

1,251

0.4

3,009

0.9

Ma Wan

Tuen Mun, Ha Tsuen

Tsuen Wan New Town

10,482

2.8

18,655

4.4

23,562

& Ping Shan

57,709

56,130

Other areas in Tsuen

143

0.04

163

0.04

164

0.03

Tuen Mun New Town

Other areas in Tuen Mun

21,589

24,772

34,330

23,840

89,901

Wan

1% 29,227

Tuen Mun. Ha Tsuen &

516

0.2

502

0.1

Ping Shan

Sha Tin, Tai Po & Sai

Kung North

66,979

2% 83,970 2%

Tuen Mun New Town

2,241

0.6

3,253

0.8

6,930

1.5

Sha Tin New Town

Other areas in Sha Tin

Total

2,992,846

100% 3,606,400 100%

26,224

1% 39,470

1% 109,471

4,280 0.11% 6,310 0.15% 7,336

3,856,736 100% 4,343,790 100% 4,936,813

Other areas in Tuen Mun

371

0.1

356

0.1

437

0.1

0.15%

100%

Sha Tin, Tai Po & Sai Kung North

371

0.1

466

0.1

Sha Tin

Sources:

Barnett, K. M. A., Hong Kong Report on the 1966 By-Census, Hong Kong, Census and Statistics Department, 1967, Vol II: Tables, p. 11. Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Population and Housing Census 1971 Main Report, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1972,

p. 28.

Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong 1981 Census Main Report, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1982, Vol 2: Tables, p. 22. During 1961-1976, New Kowloon included Cheung Sha Wan, Shek Kip Mei, Kowloon Tong, Kai Tak, Ngau Tau Kok and Lei Yue Mun. In 1981, it also encompassed Lai Chi Kok, Sham Shui Po, Kowloon City, Wong Tai Sin, Tsz Wan Shan, Ngan Chi Wan, Jordon Valley and Yau Tong.

Sha Tin New Town

Other areas in Sha Tin

Average population

2,902

per square kilometre

Sources:

3,486

1,243

0.3

1,653

0.4

4,099

0.9

104

0.03

153

0.03

177

0.04

3,754

4,207

4,760

of the major obstacles faced by the government in the development of the New Territories.

From a population of 2.07 million in 1951, the figure rose to 2.99 million in 1961 (Table 3.2). The population breakdown was 34 per cent on Hong Kong Island, 24 per cent in Kowloon, 28 per cent in New Kowloon (included Cheung Sha Wan, Shek Kip Kei, Kowloon Tong, Kai Tak, Lei Yue Mun and Ngau Tau Kok) and just 14 per cent in the New Territories. Hong Kong Island remained the most densely populated region. The district of Kwun Tong, then known as Lei Yue Mun and Ngau Tau Kok, began its development in the mid-1950s. Its population represented 3 per cent of Hong Kong's total in 1961. It was evident that in the early 1960s Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon Peninsula remained the core regions of the territory. In 1961, the population

p. 28.

density for the whole of Hong Kong was 2,902 persons per square kilometre (Table 3.3). However, the Kowloon Peninsula had an astronomical figure of 75,539 persons per square kilometre - 26 times the average density rate. This was followed by the figure of 27,615 persons registered by New Kowloon and 13,303 persons for Hong Kong Island. The district with the highest density was Wan Chai, with a figure of 209,179 persons per square kilometre. However, the degree of overcrowding was much lower compared with the highest density

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

Challenges for an Evolving City

164

figure of 2,000 persons per acre (equivalent to over 494,000 persons per square kilometre) quoted by Patrick Abercrombie in 1946. This shows that, over the 15-year post-war period, a reduction of population density in the overcrowded urban areas was achieved.

By 1966, population movements to New Kowloon and the New Territories became noticeable. Of a total population of 3.6 million, 29 per cent lived on Hong Kong Island, 19 per cent in Kowloon, 37 per cent in New Kowloon and 15 per cent in the New Territories. There was marked population growth in Kwun Tong, with 7 per cent of the total population. The upward trend continued and by 1971, the areas of Lei Yue Mun and Ngau Tau Kok were home to 11.7 per cent of Hong Kong's population. However, the use of the New Territories to ease population pressures in the urban districts had failed to gain significant results. It was not until 1981 that the population in the New Territories showed major growth. The most populated district then was Tsuen Wan with 12 per cent of Hong Kong's population. New towns such as Sha Tin and Tuen Mun each only accommodated 2 per cent of the total population. The district of Tsuen Wan had by far been the most successful example of the new town development programme up till 1981.

With a spiralling population, the population density also grew correspondingly. In 1966, the average density in Hong Kong was 3,486 persons per square kilometre. This figure rose to 3,754 by 1971, 4,207 by 1976, and 4,760 by 1981. During the 20- year period between 1961 and 1981, the Kowloon Peninsula was the most populated region in the whole territory. The density only dropped slightly in 1966 to 70,312 persons per square kilometre but shot up again from 1971 onwards. In 1971, the population. density level was 78,711 persons per square kilometre and climbed to 83,104 and 87,022 in 1976 and 1981 respectively. The density also trended upwards on Hong Kong Island and in New Kowloon.

The population growth trend and distribution in various regions vividly demonstrate the tremendous population increases between 1961 and 1981. The population climbed by an average over 97,000 people a year, equivalent to an annual compound growth rate of 2.5 per cent. There was no relief for the densely populated urban areas. Despite enormous efforts on the part of the government to develop the New Territories as a

means of lowering population density in the urban regions, results were far from satisfactory. The newly developed industrial districts only succeeded in attracting low-income residents. Even the comparatively better equipped district of Tsuen Wan failed to entice city dwellers to move into areas other than the town centre. The lack of support facilities

such as transport, medical care, education, leisure and recreational facilities, and other

community services in the new towns was the main reason for their failure to attract an inflow of population from urban districts. Consequently, the newly developed districts were largely populated by recent immigrants. Comprehensive development in the new towns only began to make significant progress from the mid-1980s onwards.

New Face of Victoria Harbour

New Typhoon Shelters

In the area of port facilities, the post-World War II emphasis was on the construction. of typhoon shelters. The Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter extension programme was the first large-scale work undertaken after the war. The plan entailed the filling up of the existing shelter and conversion into a park, and the construction of a 65-acre typhoon shelter along the shores of the park. The new typhoon shelter had three breakwaters located on the eastern and northern sides, with an average depth of 16 feet. An 850- foot-long and 13-foot-wide causeway was to be constructed at the western end to link up with Kellett Island. A 5.5-foot-wide pedestrian path was planned that would lead directly to the Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club220. The works involved the removal of 210,000 cubic yards of earth at the locations where the breakwaters were sited, and the dumping of 250,000 cubic yards of soil into the trenches. Two million cubic yards of fill material was needed for the reclamation. Most of the material was sand from

seabeds, but it also included 225,000 cubic yards of rocks. The project began in 1951 and was completed in 1953221.

The extension of the Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter did not fully solve the problem of insufficient typhoon shelters. In August 1960, the government appointed an investigative committee, chaired by the Director of Marine, to study typhoon shelters and the berthing situation. Based on statistics provided by the Marine Department, the committee estimated the number of registered fishing households to be 31,263 in 1959-60. However, the census statistics gave a figure of 24,137 households in 1960 and 21,292 households in 1961. It was believed that these statistics excluded those fishermen

who had sailed out to sea when the census was taken. The committee determined that approximately 611 acres of typhoon shelter space would be required for the 31,263 fishing households during the passage of a typhoon. This estimate did not take into account fishing boats operating in Chinese waters that would come in for shelter during

165

Challenges for an Evolving City

3.29 View of the Causeway Bay Ty-

phoon Shelter in the 1950s.

3.30 Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter undergoing extension works, with the levelling of Kellet Island and linking it to

the mainland by a causeway. The enlarged typhoon shelter offered 65 acres of shelter space. (1969)

3.31 Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter in the 1980s, with

Victoria Park in the left and the

Island Eastern Corridor in the

middle.

3.29

3.30

the typhoon. According to observations made during the onslaught of Typhoon Mary in 1960, the number of transient fishing families was around 18,868, which would require another 397 acres of berthing space in typhoon shelters.

The committee extrapolated the required shelter space based on the average of registered fishing families and transient fishing boats and estimated that 504 acres of typhoon shelter space was required, of which 109 acres should be provided in the west part of Hong Kong, 350 acres in Victoria Harbour and outlying islands, and 45 acres in the eastern part. At the time, the typhoon shelter acreage amounted to 267 acres only: 42 acres in the west, 180 acres in Victoria Harbour and outlying islands, and 45 acres in the east a shortfall of 237 acres. The typhoon shelters were extremely congested and about 47 per cent of the fishing boats were unable to find refuge in bad weather. To cope with the situation, the government had to exercise strict control over the anchorage of fishing boats. Only local fishing boats and vessels that berthed permanently in Hong Kong were permitted to moor inside the typhoon shelters. The Department of Marine was allocated an annual funding of HK$110,000 to manage the shelters. The authorities also made plans to construct additional typhoon shelters throughout the territory. It was projected that shelter space would become sufficient by the early 1970s, if the number of fishing households remained constant. The estimated cost of building more typhoon shelters came to HK$3,150 per fishing boat or HK$525 per fisherman.

In the 1950s, to protect boat dwellers against the onslaught of typhoons, the Port Works Division began the task of constructing new typhoon shelters in various parts of the territory including Wan Chai, Nga Ying Chau in Tsing Yi, Junk Bay, Kowloon Bay, Kat O, Tai O, Shuen Wan in Tai Po, Aberdeen, Tsuen Wan, Rambler Channel, Yim Tim Tsai in Sai Kung, etc. In 2004, there are 13 typhoon shelters operating in Hong Kong: Aberdeen, Causeway Bay, Cheung Chau, Hei Ling Chau, Kwun Tong, New Yau Ma Tei, Rambler Channel, Sam Ka Tsuen, Shau Kei Wan, Shuen Wan in Tai

Table 3.4 Post-War Construction of Major Typhoon Shelters

Year

Name

Original Size (acre)

Current Size

(acre)

Expenditure (HK$'000)

1883/1951

1952

Causeway Bay

Wan Chai

97 (1883)

Demolished

3,000

1960s

Sam Ka Tsuen

1965

Aberdeen

149

1966

Shap Long Wan

Demolished

8,000

1966

Shuen Wan, Tai Po

1,640

1966

Rambler Channel

1968

Yim Tin Tsai

970

1981

Cheung Chau

124

1982

Tuen Mun

140

1915/1992

New Yau Ma Tei

165

160

2,210 (1915)

1992

Shau Kei Wan

To Kwa Wan

1999

Hei Ling Chau

189

Ngong Shuen Wan

Demolished

Chai Wan

Demolished

Yung Shu Wan

Demolished

Kwun Tong

1993

Sources:

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1965-

1966, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1966, p. 33. Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1969-

1970, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1970, p. 154. Internal data, Planning and Development Office, Marine Department. Oriental Daily, 29 June 1990.

Sing Tao Daily, 30 April 1959.

"Typhoon Shelters: Tap Mun Typhoon Shelter", PWO No 2/3870/61, 1959-1967. "Typhoon Shelters: Chek Keng Typhoon Shelter", PWO No 6/3870/62, 1962-1969. "Typhoon Shelters: Nim Wan Typhoon Shelter", PWO No 8/3870/63, 1963. "Typhoon Shelters: Shap Long Typhoon Shelter", PWO No 12/3870/66, 1964-1966. "Typhoon Shelters: Lung Shuen Wan Typhoon Shelter", PWO No 3/3870/62, 1962-1974. Wah Kiu Yat Po, 19 January 1966. Wah Kiu Yat Po, 25 March 1968.

166

3.3

3.32

3.33

3.32 View of the old Aberdeen

Typhoon Shelter (early twentieth century).

3.33 Aberdeen Typhoon Shelter

in 1963.

3.34 Chai Wan Typhoon Shelter

in 1962.

3.35 Sai Kung Typhoon Shelter in

1960.

3.34

3.35

Challenges for an Evolving City

3.36 Expansion of Star Ferry Pier in

Central in the 1960s. The new pier

was supported on a 159-pile foundation.

3.37 Star Ferry Pier in 1970.

3.36

3.37

Part II New Land Formation (1945-1982)

Po, To Kwa Wan, Tuen Mun and Yim Tin Tsai. For details of year of construction and size, refer to Table 3.4 above.

The government also introduced a preferential resettlement scheme for boat dwellers and offered a subsidy of HK$330-465 to each household that accepted resettlement. The population of boat dwellers has been on the decline since the 1960s. It fell from 136,802 in 1961 to 79,894 in 1971, a dramatic drop of 41.6 per cent. By 2001, there were only 5,895 boat dwellers remaining. The declining boat dweller numbers were partly attributable to urbanisation.

New Piers

To determine public expenditure on pier works in Hong Kong between 1946 and 1982, figures have been compiled from the annual reports of the Public Works Department for the period 1946-1977, the 1977-1982 Hong Kong yearbooks and the annual reports of the Accountant General. Although those reports listed construction dates and expenditure amounts, the dates represented just the payment dates and the sums outlaid reflected just sums charged to the specific projects. They do not necessarily give a complete and accurate account of the works undertaken and sums spent. Nevertheless, these reports represent the most comprehensive data currently available and they serve as a valuable reference source. An initial estimate put the total expenditure figure for all works undertaken at HK$127 million. The expenditure amount was almost 38 times the $3.36 million incurred during 1885-1939, reflecting the rapid pace of urbanisation. Approximately 53 new piers were built and another nine were extended. This represented a threefold increase over the 17 new piers that were erected during 1885-1939. The new piers were not only located on both sides of Victoria Harbour; they were also put up in remote areas such as the New Territories and the outlying islands. The major

projects, however, were still concentrated in the urban districts; for example, the new piers at Sai Wan Ho and North Point, and the redevelopment of Star Ferry piers - all multimillion dollar projects. They were in a different league to those projects undertaken in remote parts of the territory, which involved far lesser sums.

The pier redevelopment works in Central in the 1950s were regarded as sizeable port projects in the aftermath of the Second World War. The Central reclamation undertaken in 1951 entailed complicated engineering, even though it occupied an area of just nine acres. The works included the demolition of the Star Ferry piers in 1954; Queen's Pier, Murray Pier222 and Hong Kong Macau Ferry Pier in 1955; the demolition and redevelopment of Victoria Public Pier No 12 in 1957223; and the demolition of vehicular ferry piers in 1961224. On 1 October 1954, works began simultaneously on the new Star Ferry piers in Kowloon and on Hong Kong Island. The two U-shaped piers each had four berths and were developed in two phases. The first stage was completed in

1957 and the whole project was finished in 1958. The new Star Ferry Pier in Kowloon was erected on top of a pedestal made up of 132 piles, while the pier on Hong Kong Island was built on a 159-pile pedestal. The old piers were able to maintain service at five-minute intervals during peak hours, with the ferries carrying 40 million passengers

annually when the new Kowloon Star Ferry Pier was under construction. The Star

Ferry Pier project on Hong Kong Island had an extra problem to deal with - the relocation of the 21-inch-diameter water pipelines on the east wing of the new pier. The west wing of Star Ferry Pier in Kowloon and the east wing of Star Ferry Pier on Hong Kong Island were completed as scheduled at the end of 1956.225.

In the initial years after the war, the bulk of pier works were reconstruction projects. Information on such projects is scarce and the redevelopment of the Star Ferry piers was one of the most prominent projects. After the mid-1960s, the government shifted the development emphasis to new districts such as Kennedy Town, Kwun Tong,

170

171

Table 3.5 New Pier Works and Expenditure (1947-1982)

Year

Work Item

Size

Expenditure (HK$)

Year

1947-1948

Repair-ferry piers

Repair-Wilmer Street pier

1969-1970

1969-1971

1947-1948

Repair-French Street refuse boat pier

1969-1971

Work Item

Construction-Cheung Sha Wan livestock pier

Construction-North Point Fire Station pier

Construction-Shek Pik pier

Size

Expenditure (HK$)

388,786

405,908

291,123

1947-1948

Repair-Murray Pier

1969-1972

Construction-Kwun Tong passenger ferry pier

3,282,857

1948-1949

Construction-fishermen's wharf in Kennedy Town

1,875 sq ft

1969-1972

Construction-Tai Kok Tsui passenger pier

3,098,178

1948-1949

Reconstruction-Hung Hom pier

1971-1972

1951-1952

Construction-Tai O pier

200 ft long by 30 ft wide

1971-1972

Construction-Aberdeen Fisheries Office pier

Roofing-Tai O pier

88,000

1952

Construction-Tai Lam Chung pier

130 ft long by 30 ft wide

1971-1975

Extension-Kennedy Town old abattoir pier

962,000

1953

1954

Reconstruction-Queen's Pier

Construction-Peng Chau pier

200 ft long by 80 ft wide

1972-1974

Construction-Sa Lo Wan pier

500,000

82 ft long by 18 ft wide

1972-1974

Construction-Sai Wan pier, Cheung Chau

543,000

1954-1956

Construction-Ma Tau Kok pier

1,996,346

1955-1958

Reconstruction-Star Ferry Pier

150 ft long by 50 ft wide

10,433,740

1972-1975

1973-1974

Construction-Ma Tau Kok pier

493,000

Extension-Sam Mun Tsai pier

120,000

1956

Construction-Stewart Road pier

105 feet long

136,730

1973-1975

Construction-Pak Sha Wan pier

1,644,000

1957

1957-1958

1958

Construction-Tap Mun pier

Construction-Kat O pier

1974-1978

Extension-Cheung Chau ferry pier

5,728,720

1976-1977

Roofing-Ma Wan pier

110,000

1958-1959

Extension-Chi Ma Wan prison pier

Construction-Sok Kwu Wan pier

136,394

1977-1979

Reconstruction-Hung Hom passenger pier

7,012,172

87,354

1977-1979

Construction-second North Point passenger pier and roofing of

10,043,745

1958-1959

Construction-Kei Ling Ha Hoi (Three Fathoms Cove) pier, Tolo Harbour

80 ft long by 120 ft wide

184,270

pedestrian walkway

1977-1982

1959

Construction-Tsing Yi pier

109,998

1959

Construction-new Cheung Chau pier

255,096

1979-1980

Reconstruction-new Sham Shui Po pier to replace the old Pei Ho Street pier and first stage Sham Shui Po reclamation Construction-Mui Wo ferry pier

6,260,202

6,523,689

1959-1973

Construction-North Point/Kowloon City vehicular ferry piers

5,812,656

1980-1981

Construction-new North Point vehicular ferry pier

22,568,237

1960

Construction-Tung Chung pier

30 ft long by 80 ft wide

339,746

1980-1981

Construction-Chai Wan temporary ferry pier and public square

6,216,171

1960

Construction-Ma Wan pier

172,625

1981-1982

Construction-Sai Kung town centre pier and seawall

1,474,707

1961

Construction-Blue Pool pier

180 ft long

156,000

1981-1982

1961

Extension-Tsim Bei Tsui pier

Construction-Nam Sam Wai pier

82,000

1981-1982

1982

Construction-Tai Miu Wan (Joss House Bay) pier and reclamation

Construction-Tso Wo Hang pier, Sai Kung

Construction-Sai Wan Ho pier

829,247

811,973

19,470,991

1961-1962

Construction-Kwun Tong public pier

175 ft long by 45 ft wide

365,411

Total

126,660,847

1961-1962

1961-1963

1962

Construction-Sha Tau Kok pier

Construction-Lai Chi Chong pier Construction-Sham Chung pier Construction-Shek Kwu Chau pier

80 ft long by 30 ft wide

591,369

Sources:

80 ft long by 30 ft wide

42 ft long by 18 ft wide

Construction-Kai Tak Airport pier

42 ft long by 18 ft wide

1962-1963

Construction-Peng Chau pier

359,653

1962-1963

Construction-North Point passenger pier

2,015,743

1962-1963

Construction-Yung Shue Wan pier

612,906

1965-1967

Construction-Waglan Island pier

551,122

1965-1967

Construction-Wong Shek pier

346,719

1965-1967

Construction-Ko Lau Wan pier

383,939

Annual Report by the Accountant General for the Year Ended the 31 st March 1950, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co Ltd, 1950. Annual Report of the Accountant General Together With the Accounts and Finance of the Colony, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1956-1959.

Annual Report of the Accountant General With the Accounts of the Colony, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1959-1962. Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Accountant General, Hong Kong Government Printer, 1951-1956. Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1951-1978. Hong Kong Annual Report of the Director of Public Works and Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1949-1950. Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1978-1983.

1965-1967

Construction-Kennedy Town Abattoir pier

720,000

1965-1967

Construction-Tiu Keng Leng pier

106,132

1966-1968

Works at Aberdeen marine police pier and nearby roads

725,000

1967-1969

Construction-Yau Kom Tau and Tsing Yi North ferry piers

244,000

}

1967-1970

Construction-Cheung Sha Wan Abattoir pier

388,786

1968-1969

Roofing-Kwun Tong pier

105,000

1968-1970

Construction-Chek Keng pier

230,500

1968-1970

Construction-Ap Chau pier

144,906

1969

Roofing-Tsing Yi public pier

玉集

3.39

3.38

3.38 Pier works at To Kwa Wan in October 1963.

3.39 Panoramic view of Jordon Road Vehicular Ferry Pier, with Hung Hom and Tsim Sha

Tsui in the background. The northern shore of Hong Kong Island could be seen in

the far distance.

3.40

3.41

3.40 North Point Ferry Pier (built in 1962-63), with North Point Estate shown in the left hand corner of the

photograph.

3.41 North Point Vehicular Ferry Pier was constructed during 1959-1973. It was one of the largest pier

projects at the time, costing over HK$5.8m.

Challenges for an Evolving City

3.42 The Sham Chung pier built in the early 1960s.

Table 3.6

Outlying District Ferry Services-Average Daily

Passenger Journey Statistics (1971 & 1975)

Ferry Run

1971

1975

Hong Kong - Tsuen Wan

8,291 (1972)

19,031

Hong Kong - Silvermine Bay (Mui Wo)

7,097

9,159

- Peng Chau

Hong Kong - Cheung Chau

5,822

8,833

Hong Kong - Tai O

942

931

Wilmer Street - Yung Shue Wan

736

1,378

Wilmer Street - Sok Kwu Wan

613

532

Tsuen Wan - Tsing Yi

5,228

Inter-island ferry service

1,126

1,175

Tai Po Kau - Tap Mun

472

554

Ma Liu Shui - Wu Kai Sha

1,119

Source:

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

Cheung Sha Wan, North Point, Tai Kok Tsui, Aberdeen and Chai Wan.

In March 1976, a Subcommittee on Piers was formed by the Marine Department, the Transport Department, the Port Works Division, the Highways Office, the Environment Branch, the New Territories Administration and The Hong Kong and Yaumati Ferry Co Ltd. Its mandate was to set the pier development blueprint for the period 1976- 1986. The objective was to manage waterborne transport in Hong Kong waters systematically and to determine its development direction, as well as to evaluate the impact on central harbour ferry services by the Cross-Harbour Tunnel and the potential impact of the Mass Transit Railway, which was due to open in 1980226.

The subcommittee selected 20 piers for priority development: a temporary landing at Mei Foo Sun Chuen, a temporary landing near Central Government piers, a permanent ferry pier at Tsuen Wan, a new Silvermine Bay ferry pier, a ferry pier at Peng Chau, the redevelopment of Jubilee Street pier and Jordon Road ferry pier, the extension of the North Point vehicular ferry pier, an additional ferry pier at Cheung Chau, improved facilities at Sok Kwu Wan and Yung Shue Wan piers, a ferry pier at Ma Liu Shui, a passenger ferry pier at Wu Kai Sha, improved landing facilities at Po Toi Island, the second passenger pier at North Point, an additional pier at Kwun Tong, a pier to replace Wilmer Street pier, a permanent pier at Mei Foo, new ferry piers at Shau Kei Wan and a permanent pier at Sam Ka Tsuen227. One by one, these development projects were realised starting from 1976. The systematic management of waterborne transport was an indispensable component of the territory's modernisation.

Beginning in the 1980s, the large-scale pier works were concentrated in the urban areas. The erection of a new vehicular ferry pier at North Point in 1980 involved an outlay of HK$22.57 million, while the construction of a ferry pier in Sai Wan Ho in 1982 cost HK$19.47 million. The construction cost of just these two piers exceeded the total outlays on piers in the 1950s and the 60s. The newly built piers on the outlying

"Standing Committee on Waterborne Transport, Report of the Sub-Committee on Piers", Civil Engineering Office internal documents, File 1001 III Piers (General Policy and Ruling), 1976, Appendix II.

islands were relatively small in size as their primary role was to serve the local residents. Such role is corroborated by data presented in Tables 3.6 and 3.7, which show the average daily passenger journey figures for the outlying district and inner harbour ferry services. In 1975, the outlying district services between Hong Kong and Tsuen Wan only carried an average of 19,031 passenger journeys per day, equivalent to just 13 per cent of the average daily figure of 145,332 passenger journeys recorded by the Edinburgh Place-Tsim Sha Tsui ferry run. For some remote locations such as the Tai

Po Kau-Tap Mun ferry run, the average daily figure was only 472 in 1971.

The location of piers reflected the radiating influence of the city's core districts.

The more remote the pier locations, the more extensive the city's coverage. The piers

built between 1946 and 1982 were scattered throughout the territory. Some of the major works undertaken reflected the city nucleus and the locations of districts earmarked for priority development. The pace of urbanisation could be gauged from the rising levels of expenditure on pier works and the trend of expansion. After 1980, the multifold increase in public works expenditure appeared to be paving the way for the massive development that took place at the end of the twentieth century.

Fairway Dredging

During the 36 years between 1946 and 1982, the volume of material removed

through fairway dredging and reclamation exceeded the quantity collected over the

176

177

Table 3.7

Inner Harbour Ferry Services-Average Daily Passenger Journey Statistics (1971 and 1975)

Table 3.8 Recurrent Expenditure on Port Maintenance (1949-1982)

(unit: HK$)

Ferry Run

1971

1975

Financial Year

Seawalls and Piers

Seawalls, Piers and Refuse Dumps

Seawalls, Piers and Fairway Dredging

Total

Edinburgh Place-Tsim Sha Tsui

152,285

145,332

1949-1950

128,718

Edinburgh-Hung Hom

4,668

1950-1951

119,996

Jubilee Street-Jordon Road

86,136

62,380

1951-1952

117,280

1952-1953

192,546

Central-Sham Shui Po

58,876

40,433

1953-1954

217,301

Central-Tai Kok Tsui

54,938

20,059

1954-1955

206,235

Central-Kwun Tong

12,160

1955-1956

195,613

Central-Mei Foo Sun Chuen

7,172

1956-1957

188,263

North Point-Kwun Tong

62,835

45,262

1957-1958

219,186

North Point-Kowloon City

33,813

27,612

1958-1959

213,131

1959-1960

222,713

Wan Chai-Jordon Road

54,621

21,160

1960-1961

199,783

Wilmer Street-Sham Shui Po

30,052

23,472

1961-1962

222,274

Shau Kei Wan-Kwun Tong

20,933

1962-1963

262,151

Shau Kei Wan-Sam Ka Tsuen

8,644

1963-1964

264,561

Wan Chai-Hung Hom

North Point-Hung Hom

28,475

44,202

12,488

1964-1965

267,907

1965-1966

31,592

314,149

1966-1967

431,587

Source:

"Standing Committee on Waterborne Transport, Report of the Sub-Committee on Piers". Civil Engineering Office internal documents, File 1001 III Piers (General Policy and Ruling), 1976, Appendix I.

1967-1968

476,042

1968-1969

517,975

1969-1970

531,509

1970-1971

672,767

1971-1972

1,049,499

[

period of 56 years, from 1883 to 1939. Two million cubic yards of silt was excavated before the war, and the dredged volumes rose to 4.698 million cubic metres (6.14

million cubic yards) for the 1946-1982 period. The cost of excavation leapfrogged to over HK$1.2 million, compared with the HK$608,000 expended between 1883 and 1939. The figure provided for 1946-1982 is only a rough estimate as dredging outlay was lumped under the expenditure heading of seawalls and pier works after 1975- 1976. Thus, it is not possible to determine accurately the actual spending on dredging operations.

Dredging was mostly carried out at the mouths of nullahs and drain outfalls. Other major work areas included piers, dust boat stations, anchorages and typhoon shelters. Since the end of the 1950s, a recurrent fairway dredging maintenance programme has been in place. The significance of dredging at drain outfalls, piers, typhoon shelters

and major navigational fairways to maintain a deep and wide Victoria Harbour may be judged by the extensive areas dredged and the large volumes of marine mud scooped up by dredgers. The importance of dredging the Central Fairway has been evident since 1968. During 1946-1982, about 1,000,000-1,600,000 cubic metres of sediment

Sources:

Accounts of Hong Kong and Annual Report of the Director of Accounting Services, Hong Kong. Government Printer, 1974-1982. Accounts of Hong Kong and Annual Report of the Accountant General, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1971-1974. Accounts of the Colony and Annual Report of the Accountant General, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1962-1971. Annual Report by the Accountant General for the Year Ended the 31st March, 1950, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co., Ltd., 1950. Annual Report of the Accountant General Together with the Accounts and Finance of the Colony, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1956-1959. Annual Report of the Accountant General With the Accounts of the Colony, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1959-1962. Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Accountant General, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1951-1956.

1972-1973

1,421,860

1973-1974

1,717,829

1974-1975

1,543,618

1975-1976

1,381,713

1976-1977

1,386,744

1977-1978

1,532,447

1978-1979

1,381,674

1979-1980

1,533,655

1980-1981

3,354,186

1981-1982

1,847,892

775,841

12,520,365

11,036,598

24,332,804

Challenges for an Evolving City

178

Table 3.9 Harbour Dredging Works (1946-1982)

Vol. of Sediment

Year

Dredged (cubic metre)

Cost (HK$)

1946-1947

1947-1948

54,698

1948-1949

1949-1950

98,303

206,321

110,950

Main Dredged Area

Dust boat stations, Dairy Farm wharf in Causeway Bay

Pitt Street, Saigon Street, Eastern Street, Fleming Road dust boat station, Yau Ma Tei dust boat station, Kai Tak Airport, Causeway Bay, Watson Street, Waterloo Road pier, Custodian Wharf, Mong Kok ferry pier, Nelson Street, Mackies Wharf, North Point

Drain outfalls and dust boat stations (98,303)

Fleming Road, French Street, Saigon Street, Sham Shui Po, Wan Chai, Fleming Road dust boat station, Nelson Street nullah, Kai Tak Airport, Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter, Proserpine Rock

1950-1951

168,300

135,846

Blocked nullahs (168,300)

1951-1952

137,700

117,280

Tai O, Cheung Chau, Causeway Bay

1952-1953

94,095

17,328

Blocked nullahs

1953-1954

103,275

40,304

Drain outfalls (103,275)

1954-1955

120,870

53,805

Silt built up on seawalls, nullah and stormwater drains

Disposal Site

Kwun Tong

North Point

Aberdeen, Staunton Creek, Kat O

Kwun Tong and along

the shores of harbour

Causeway Bay, Kellett Island

Kwun Tong

Cheung Sha Wan, Sung Wong Toi, Ma Tau Kok, Central reclamation scheme

The new Star Ferry Pier

and Hung Hom

1955-1956

145,350

19,651

Outfalls of nullahs and stormwater drains, Stewart Road ferry pier

1956-1957

149,175

31,575

Nullahs and stormwater drains, Hung Hom seawall, Tsuen Wan reclamation site and Kai Tak Airport

1957-1958

150,705

53,913

1958-1959

126,225

36,019

Tsuen Wan seawall trenches, Hung Hom, Central reclamation, Tsing Yi Typhoon Shelter, nullahs and North Point government supplies pier

Drain outfalls (126,225)

Cheung Sha Wan, Chai Wan Houng Hom, Kennedy Town

Cheung Sha Wan,

Kwun Tong, Hung Hom, Central

Year

Vol. of Sediment Dredged (cubic metre)

Cost (HK$)

Main Dredged Area

Disposal Site

1976-1977

232,090

1,386,744*

Western end of Victoria Harbour in connection with the Western reclamation scheme (184,730); Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter eastern fairwayand nullahs, sewerage drains and outfalls of seawater pumping stations (47,360)

1977-1978

1978-1979

1979-1980

1980-1981

1981-1982

Total

1,532,447*

Stonecutters Island, fairways leading to the ferry pier and public pier at Cheung Chau

1,381,674*

Anchorage to the south of Stonecutters Island

1,533,655*

3,354,186*

1,847,892*

12,256,237

4,698,039

* Total outlays on the maintenance of seawalls and piers, and fairway dredging

The original unit of measurement used in 1946-1976 for dredged silt volumes was cubic yard. The volumes have been converted into cubic

metres at the rate of 1 cubic yard = 0.765 cubic metres.

Sources:

Accounts of Hong Kong and Annual Report of the Director of Accounting Services, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1974-1982. Accounts of Hong Kong and Annual Report of the Accountant General 1971-1974, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1971-1974. Accounts of the Colony and Annual Report of the Accountant Genera1 1962-1971, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1962-1971. Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1950-1951, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1951. Annual Report by the Accountant-General for the Year Ended 31st March 1950, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co Ltd, 1950. Annual Report of the Accountant General Together With the Accounts and Finance of the Colony, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1956-

1959.

Annual Report of the Accountant General With the Accounts of the Colony, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1959-1962. Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Accountant General, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1951-1956. Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1951-1978. Hong Kong Annual Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year, Hong Kong Government, 1949-1950. Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1978-1983.

Tsing Yi Typhoon Shelter, mouths of nullahs and sewer outlets (80,972)

Drain outfalls, seawall foundations of Silvermine Bay Phase II reclamation, Sai Kung anchorage area (99,450)

Mouths of nullahs and sewer outlets (73,823); Sai O, Kat O (33,928); petrol station pier at Tsuen Wan Bay (8,568)

Mouths of nullahs and sewerage outfalls (86,828)

Mouths of nullahs and sewerage outfalls, and alongside piers (95,778)

Mouths of nullahs and sewer outlets, and alongside piers and anchorages (95,319)

1959-1960

123,165

37,803

Drain outfalls and Southern Fairway (123,165)

1960-1961

118,450

27,418

Tsing Yi Typhoon Shelter (118,450)

1961-1962

80,972

35,132

1962-1963

99,450

31,509

1963-1964

116,319

32,297

1964-1965

86,828

18,220

1965-1966

95,778

39,012

1966-1967

95,319

24,696

1967-1968

166,005

38,184

1968-1969

213,435

54,600

Harbour anchorages (52,785); dangerous goods anchorages, Central Fairway (160,650)

1969-1970

277,695

32,290

1970-1971

263,649

24,750

1971-1972

293,664

36,939

1972-1973

194,178

40,447

1973-1974

267,215

48,237

1974-1975

257,740

42,658

1975-1976

161,070

38,776

Mouth of Kwun Tong nullah, Western Dangerous Goods Anchorage (114,750); nullahs, sewerage drains and alongside piers (51,255)

Mouths of nullahs and alongside piers (44,370); Central Fairway and Tamar naval dockyard (233,325)

Mouths of nullahs and alongside piers (42,181); Central Fairway (221,468)

Mouths of nullahs and sewerage outfalls, alongside piers and seawater pumping stations (25,914); Central Fairway (267,750)

Mouths of nullahs and sewerage outfalls, alongside piers and seawater pumping stations (25,878); Central Fairway (168,300)

Mouths of nullahs and sewer outlets, alongside piers and seawater pumping stations, fairways of Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter and Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter fairways (35,037); Central Fairway and Eastern Fairway (232,178)

Central Fairway (215,000); mouths of nullahs and sewer outlets, seawater pumping stations and Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter fairway (42,740)

Victoria Harbour, Central Fairway, Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter eastern fairway (108,340); nullahs, sewerage drains, alongside piers and seawater pumping stations (52,730)

was dredged from the Central Fairway, which accounted for 22-34 per cent of the total volume excavated. With ocean-going vessels getting larger and requiring a deeper draught, dredging operations assumed an increasingly important role. From the mid- 1940s to the end of 1950s, fragmentary reporting was made of the locations used to dump the dredged material. The dredged mud was mainly deposited in the areas along the northern shore of Hong Kong Island that were undergoing reclamation, including

Chai Wan, North Point, Causeway Bay and Kennedy Town on Hong Kong Island. The dumping sites on the Kowloon Peninsula were Kwun Tong, Cheung Sha Wan and Hung Hom. Most of the dredged material was utilised in reclamation. From 1959 onwards, the government annual work reports no longer disclosed information on how the sediment was disposed of. Thus, it is not possible to find out where the dredged material ended up.

From the ever-rising volumes of dredged sediment and growing expenditure on dredging activity, it is clear that in the 40-plus years after the war, port repairs and maintenance works increased steadily. The rising volumes dredged from the main navigational

channels were attributed to more fairways being added and their widening. The building

of sediments at sewerage outfalls made it inevitable to perform recurrent fairway dredging

and unclog the blocked drain outlets.

Sub-Total

1,219,639

Challenges for an Evolving City

Table 3.10

Kwai Chung Container Terminal - Reclamation

and Site Formation Areas

Site Formation

Area

(acre)

Reclamation Area (acre)

Fill Material (million cubic yards)

Stage

International Trading Port

Phase 1

0.75

Phase 2

1.75

Sub-total

2.5

Stage II

1.5

Stage III

2.25

Total

114

6.25

Source:

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

Kwai Chung Container Terminal

After the Second World War, Britain began to use military landing crafts to ferry containers from Britain to Ireland, or to the European continent. This method of transporting cargo was soon widely adopted in Europe. The landing crafts were subsequently replaced by freight vessels well-equipped for cargo handling. In 1955, container ships gained popularity on the Europe-America and America-Hawaii routes, and more and more vessels were entering into service. By 1960, container vessels became the predominant mode for transporting cargo, with the vessel numbers growing at a fast rate.

On 12 July 1966, the Hong Kong government appointed a Container Committee to plan for a container terminal 228. In 1967, the committee recommended that a container terminal be built on a 95-acre seabed site along the shoreline of Kwai Chung. Another 20 acres of land was to be reserved for development in five years' time229. In May 1969, the Port Works Division of the Civil Engineering Office prepared the feasibility report on the Kwai Chung Container Terminal, and the report became the project's blueprint.

The container terminal project was undertaken in three phases beginning from 1969. A total of four berths were planned and the works were scheduled for completion by 1977. The reclaimed area measured about 87 acres and required site formation. works on 114 acres of land (Table 3.10). Initially, the project was estimated to cost HK$253 million. The expenditure details are presented in Table 3.11.

According to investigations carried out by the Port Works Division, the seabed of the site chosen to build the Kwai Chung Container Terminal was covered in soft marine mud. Thus, it was necessary to excavate 10 feet of mud before placing fill material, and to apply fill material inside the seawall to accelerate the rate of settlement. For areas close to the terminal, that is, in front of the seawall, rocks could be used as fill. Consolidation work was needed after the deposit of fill material. Regular maintenance dredging of berths was necessary to maintain the required depths.

Port Works Division, Public Works Department, Engineering Report on the Proposed Container Terminal

at Kwai Chung, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1969, p. 2.

Table 3.11 Kwai Chung Container Terminal Project Estimated Cost

(unit: HK$ million)

Total

Stage I (2 Berths)

Stage II (1 Berth)

Stage III (1 Berth)

Site formation cost

100

Land development

Facilities for container

100

vessels

Total

115

253

Construction period (years)

3.5

Anticipated completion date

1973

1975

1977

Source:

Port Works Division, Public Works Department, Engineering Report on the Proposed Container

Terminal at Kwai Chung, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1969, p.1.

To save cost, it was necessary to determine accurately the dredged water depths at the terminal area. No large rocks were allowed to remain lying on the seabed close

to the selected berthing area. For the Kwai Chung Container Terminal, dredging was

generally performed to produce water depths of 40 feet below sea level. In areas such as Tsing Chau and Mong Chau, dredging was carried out to a depth of minus 50 feet, due to the presence of large quantities of rocks in the nearby seabed. The stretch of waters lying southeast of Tsing Yi was also dredged to minus 50 feet to align with the

depth of the main channel.

In 1966, the Container Committee determined that the terminal would be able

to handle vessels up to 750 feet long, 100 feet wide, and with a draught of 33 feet.

182

183

3.43

3.43 Kwai Chung Container Terminal only had

two operating berths in 1972.

3.44 Kwai Chung Container Terminal under

construction in September 1972.

3.45 Kwai Chung Container Terminal began

operation before the end of 1972.

Challenges for an Evolving City

3.44

3.45

184

Part III New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

The 1969 plan prepared by the Port Works Division actually envisaged a terminal capable of receiving ships with a length of up to 810 feet and a draught of 33 feet, and preparatory work was made to handle ships with a draught of up to 40 feet. The first

stage of the container terminal project involved the building of two 850-foot long

berths, with a depth of 35 feet alongside each berth. Two other berths each with a

depth of 40 feet were to be built in the second and third stages. The first phase of stage I works was scheduled to begin at Mong Chau and the terminal was anticipated to be ready within two-and-a-half years, due to the relatively small scale of reclamation. The first berth was equipped with 22 acres of back-up space for cargo handling, workshops, offices, warehouses and open spaces. The second phase of stage I works involved the

construction of a second berth and a 26-acre back-up area.

In 1976, the Kwai Chung Container Terminal went into full operation. The

terminal was owned by four private port operators: Modern Terminals Ltd, Sea-Land (Orient) Ltd, Kowloon Container Wharf Co Ltd and Hong Kong International Terminals Ltd. It soon surpassed its capacity due to the phenomenal growth in container throughputs.

In 1976, the number of containers handled far exceeded the projected 1986 throughput made by the Container Committee in 1966. The committee estimated that the terminal would handle a maximum of 927,000 TEU (20-foot equivalent units) in 1986. The actual number of boxes handled in 1976 was 1,029,000, 11 per cent more than the estimated maximum for 1986. For statistics, refer to Table 3.12. In 1981,

Hong Kong was ranked the fourth busiest container port in the world behind Rotterdam, New York and Kobe. (Table 3.13)

By 1987, the Kwai Chung Container Terminal was already equipped with six berths, with a total quay length of over 2,300 metres and an area of 114 acres for cargo

trans-shipments. The terminals offered very efficient services as it only required an average turnaround time of 13 hours for a container vessel to complete the process of entering the harbour, unloading and loading its cargo, and leaving Hong Kong waters 230.

185

3.46 Kwai Chung Container Terminal was equipped with four berths in 1980 and handled 1,480,000 TEU.

Table 3.12 Kwai Chung Container Terminal Throughput

Table 3.13 World's Top Ten Container Ports - Throughput in 1981

(unit: TEU)

Rotterdam

New York

Kobe

2,049,148

1,860,000

1,576,651

Hong Kong

Kaohsiung

Singapore

Hamburg

1,559,819

1,124,707

1,046,504

906,504

San Juan

Yokohama

Bremen/Bremer Haven

Sources:

841,933

812,502

811,875

Containerisation International, London, Vol 16, December 1982, p. 36, Table 1.

Part II New Land Formation (1945-1982)

(unit: TEU)

1966 Estimated Maximum Throughput

Exports

Imports

Total

Exports

Actual Throughput

Imports

Total

1966

130,000

104,000

234,000

1971

234,000

179,000

413,000

1976

323,000

254,000

577,000

510,838

518,221

1977

1,029,059

1,259,000

1978

1,226,000

1979

1,304,000

1980

1981

417,000

330,000

747,000

788,706

771,113

1982

1,480,000

1,559,819

1,690,000

1986

521,000

Sources:

406,000

927,000

Container Committee, Report of the Terminal Sub-Committee, 1966, Appendix E. Chan, Chui-hay and Wong, Tak Sing, The Expansion of the Kwai Chung Container Terminal, Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong

Kong, MBA Thesis, 1983, p. 22. Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1981-1983.

Kai Tak Airport Reclamation

At the end of the 1920s, with a population of almost one million, it was almost impossible to find a site for airport development that was both easily accessible and sufficiently large. After weighing the pros and cons, the authorities decided to put the focus on transport accessibility. The opening of Kai Tak Airport in the mid-1903s

allowed Hong Kong to expand its trans-shipment business from just using maritime trade mode to incorporating the use of air trade. Further development of Kai Tak Airport was hampered severely by the lack of space and had to rely mostly on reclamation to provide the land needed for expansion.

After the war, Kai Tak Airport developed into the busiest airport in the Far East, but the acute space shortage posed a risk to aviation safety. The Civil Aviation Department began the search for a new airport site in its attempt to improve aviation services. A British firm of consultants, Scott & Wilson, Kirkpatrick & Partners, was

invited to Hong Kong to advise on the choice of site for the new airport. At the time, Deep Bay (Shenzhen Wan) and Stanley were under active consideration. Due to its close proximity to the Chinese border, Deep Bay was considered unsuitable, while the cost of building an airport at Stanley was prohibitive231. In June 1951, the government

had to commission other consultants to make recommendations on improving the existing facilities at Kai Tak Airport. The experts proposed an extension of runway No 07 and the addition of another runway. The Port Works Division was given the responsibility for the expansion works at Kai Tak Airport. This was one of the important port-war infrastructural projects undertaken by the division.

In July 1952, the Hong Kong government engaged Scott & Wilson, Kirkpatrick & Partners from London to evaluate the airport expansion works, and the project was approved in June 1954. The improvements were estimated to cost HK$135 million

and tenders were invited on 30 June 1955. British and French companies won the majority of the work for the runways. Contracts for other major work items were awarded to the French company Société Francaise d'Entreprises de Dragages et de Travaux

187

3.47

3.48

337

།

་་་་་་་་

3.47 Bird's eye view of Kai Tak Airport in 1955 with Ex-

pansion works took place from 1956.

3.48 Panoramic view of Kai Tak Airport in 1963, with Kowloon City in the upper part. In the middle is the airport control tower which went into operation at

the end of 1962.

3.49 Runway extension works were undertaken in 1972.

3.50 Runway extension was close to completion in 1972.

3.49

3.50

Challenges for an Evolving City

3.51 Kowloon City in the 1980s.

Summary

Part II New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

Publics, which was supported by Messrs Gammon (Malaya). Equipment employed on the expansion project included two large bucket dredgers, a floating crane, nine tugs, 10 barges and four pontoons. Equipment and engineering staff came from many different countries, including machinery and engines for some dredgers from the US, trucks from Britain and various items of machinery from Singapore.

The project involved the construction of a runway that was 2,194 metres long, with a 914-metre overrun at the southeastern end and another 244-metre overrun at the northwestern end of the airport, as well as a 183-metre-wide taxiway. The airport expansion involved a total reclamation area of 60.75 hectares (150 acres) at Kowloon Bay, with the runway lying 5 metres above the sea level. In addition to the runway extension works, the project covered the building of a new passenger terminal encompassing an area of nine acres. For the reclamation, the seabed was dredged to depths of between 2.7 metres and 11 metres. An estimated 8,409,786 cubic metres of fill material was to

be used, of which 6,116,208 cubic metres came from Hung Hom Bay, with the remaining 2,293,578 cubic metres of fill sourced from hills in Kowloon. In the first 20 months

of work, a total of 6,116,208 cubic metres of sea mud was dredged and used for reclamation.

Two-thirds of the reclamation was completed two years after the commencement

of the airport expansion project, and work began on the 7-storey passenger terminal that was worth HK$16 million. In August 1958, the runway was finished and was commissioned in mid-September. By December 1959, all the expansion works were successfully completed. The new terminal, however, did not replace the old one until 2 November 1962. It took 18 days to complete the move of the passenger terminal. Air freight volumes grew significantly in the second half of the 1960s following the completion of expansion works.

Over the 36-year period from liberation to 1982, massive development took place in Hong Kong, accompanied by an equally astonishing pace of urbanisation. The spiralling population growth experienced from 1950 to the 1960s imposed tremendous pressure on development, but it also served as a key driver behind Hong Kong's urbanisation.

For the first few years after the war, the focus in Hong Kong was on reconstruction.

The rebuilding work carried out by the works divisions of the Public Works Department largely followed the established guidelines before the outbreak of war and aimed at restoring the infrastructure to its pre-war state. In the early 1950s, the administration

accepted the recommendations of the British town planning expert Patrick Abercrombie

and limited the city's expansion to areas on north Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon Peninsula, while using the New Territories as the hinterland for the urban areas. As a result, areas that were used as dumping grounds since the 1930s were converted into

industrial districts, since only they could offer the required space. The district of Kwun Tong was a prime example. The emergence of industrial districts met the needs created by the rapid population growth and the emergence of manufacturing industries in the 1950s. The primary objective for developing industrial districts was to cope with the pressing needs, with emphasis placed on site formation, reclamation, public housing and industrial buildings. In the early stages, the installation of basic facilities such as water and electricity failed to keep pace with development. It was only through the dedicated efforts of voluntary organisations and religious bodies that the residents

were able to receive a minimum level of community services such as schools and

medical facilities. As such, these new districts only succeeded in attracting the middle and lower classes, while failing to significantly mitigate population pressure in the

urban areas.

By 1960, the population was growing at a rate far exceeding the projections made by Patrick Abercrombie. It was not feasible for the government to adhere strictly to his urban blueprint. The New Territories was the only viable development option.

190

191

3.52 Southern tip of the Kowloon

Peninsula at the end of the 1960s, with Kowloon-Canton Railway Kowloon Terminus standing next to Ocean Terminal, and The Peninsula

Hotel before it underwent re-

furbishment and expansion.

3.53 Night view of Central from Tsim Sha Tsui in the 1980s. Kowloon-Canton Railway Kowloon Terminus was already demolished, leaving the clock tower be-

hind as a landmark in Tsim Sha Tsui.

Challenges for an Evolving City

192

The districts selected for development would have to be much larger, matched by much improved support facilities. Starting from the early 1960s, the Port Works Division and the Development Division, under the aegis of the Public Works Department, began to formulate blueprints for new satellite towns at Tsuen Wan, Castle Peak and Sha Tin. These two divisions performed most of the preparatory work and even undertook development projects in the early years. In 1964, the Civil Engineering Office was established to meet the growing needs for engineering works. Specific divisions were set up within the office to take charge of drainage, roads and traffic, in order to serve the needs of

the new satellite towns.

Generally speaking, the development of new satellite towns commenced from the mid-1950s. Little progress was made and much time was spent on planning and consultations. For example, planning for the development of Sha Tin began in 1961, but the project could only proceed at full speed from the late 1970s. The planning process lasted for more than 10 years. As large areas of land had to be developed, it involved complex issues such as the land rights of the indigenous villagers, funding and reclamation techniques. All these factors contributed to the slow progress of development. In the 1970s, Tsuen Wan was the only district in the New Territories that made a positive impact on relieving the overcrowded conditions in the city. By 1981, Sha Tin and Tuen Mun were still unable to fulfill the vital mission of drawing people from the city

nucleus.

In the 1960s, the Civil Engineering Office oversaw a great number of large- scale projects. In addition to carrying out the development of new satellite towns, it was given the vital task of improving the port infrastructure. Notable assignments included the planning of the Kwai Chung Container Terminal and the expansion works at Kai Tak Airport. These infrastructural works cemented Hong Kong's position as an international entrepôt in the 1960s. The Kwai Chung Container Terminal was built in response to changes in global trading pattern. The phenomenal growth that it achieved and the premier position that it occupied were not foreseen. By 1981, this terminal

became the fourth-ranking container port in the world, just behind Rotterdam, New York and Kobe. It was the primary driving force behind Hong Kong's success as a premier trading port in the Asia Pacific region.

The expansion of Kai Tak Airport, which was located in the urban centre, also helped Hong Kong to establish its position as a trading centre. By the 1950s, the existing airport facilities were stretched beyond their capacity. Space limitations and time constraints, exacerbated by the constant threat of typhoons and rainstorms, made it quite an achievement

to complete the work without disrupting the normal operations of the airport. The expansion works began in 1955 and were successfully completed in December 1959. Significant growth in air freight activity ensued in the second half of the 1960s.

The unglamorous, routine port maintenance such as fairway dredging, seawall and pier repairs did not attract public attention. Such work, however, played a pivotal role in maintaining the smooth operation of Victoria Harbour and upholding its reputation

as a deepwater port. According to available records, almost 4.7 million cubic metres

of sediment was dredged between 1946 and 1976, at a cost in excess of HK$1.2 million.

Pier construction was a port infrastructural activity that conferred a direct benefit on people's livelihoods. It enabled the establishment of links between the remote outlying islands and the city nucleus. The erection of more piers facilitated travel between Hong Kong Island and Kowloon.

Since the mid-1950s, the scale of infrastructural works in Hong Kong has increased. A series of major development projects were undertaken in succession. They included the construction of large piers such as the North Point to Kowloon City vehicular ferry piers, and the redevelopment of Star Ferry piers in the 1950s; the Kai Tak Airport expansion in 1955; the development of Kwun Tong in 1956; the construction of the Kwai Chung Container Terminal in 1966; and the planning of new satellite towns in Sha Tin and Tsuen Wan in the 1960s. These infrastructural projects required the commitment of enormous financial resources and they symbolised Hong Kong's modernisation. The pace of infrastructural growth led the development trend of the city.

Part III New Land Formation (1945 - 1982)

193

1:44

⇒4 | 1 : 31111138

1982-2003

Multi-1 fucleus Expansion

1. Territorywide Development Strategy

Development Outlook

Land Use Planning

From Engineering Development Department to

Civil Engineering Department

2. Rose Garden Project

Airport Core Programme

West Kowloon Reclamation

Territorywide Development Strategy

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

3. Port Development

Enhancement of Logistic Capabilities

New Port Facilities

4. Environmental Protection

Environmental - Friendly Fill Material

Disposal of Dredged Mud

Improvement of the Shing Mun River

5. Tourism Facilities

Hong Kong Disneyland

6. Summary

Development Outlook

Prodded by deficient land reserves and a soaring population, the administration focused its efforts on exploiting additional land resources and this spurred further economic development. Between the 1950s and the 1980s, the official urbanisation policy centred on the twin objectives of addressing the housing crisis and promoting industrial development. From 1966 onwards, public land formation works were extended to the New Territories. Districts bordering the urban Kowloon Peninsula and New Kowloon such as Tsuen Wan and Kwai Tsing were designated for priority development232. The government attempted to synchronise the pace of development in the various districts to ensure better co-ordination between the different engineering projects, as well as initiating long-term planning for transport links between the new towns and the urban areas. Simultaneously, it aggressively improved the port facilities by expanding Kai Tak Airport and building the Kwai Chung Container Terminal, in order to enhance the

competitiveness of the Hong Kong port.

In the 1980s, the rapid population growth in Hong Kong showed no sign of abatement, with the population figure climbing from 5,000,000 in 1981 to 5,500,000 in 1986. In the five years between 1986 and 1991, the growth rate slacked off and the population increased by just 170,000233. For the first time after the war, the population grew at a slower pace. The growth rate picked up sharply soon after and the population broke through the 6,000,000 threshold in 1996, registering a figure of 6,310,000234. By 2001, Hong Kong had a population of 6,710,000235.

In the late 1970s and the early 1980s, China implemented its economic reforms in earnest and Hong Kong became an important gateway into the China market. As a result, Hong Kong adjusted its economic role in the Asia-Pacific region and achieved phenomenal growth in re-export trade. In December 1984, the Chinese and British governments signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration and agreed on the reversion of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty on 1 July 1997. This marked the end of British

197

Challenges for an Evolving City

COMMITTED EXTENSION- TO CONTAINER PORT

BASE TRAIN SALA

THIRD

----

TSING YI CROSSING

SEWAGE TREATMENT WORKS

污水蒸澧酒

Kosi

THIS AREA FOR NON-RESIDENTIAL USES

菲住宅用途

Scale 1:75 000 IMA

4.1

198

CROSSING

WEST HARBOUR *

香港西面之波,等投範

Pokfulam Resory-u

千米

無下海路*

ONNEL..

KOWLOON/

九龍

HONG KONG

香港

Aberdeen Reservoir

***

ABERDEEN TUNNEL

UNG' HOM

@Min

BY-PASS

TATE'S CAIRN

TUNNEL

KAI TAK

AIRPORT

KWUN TONG BY-PASS het sond

KCR TERMINAL EXPANSION

九廣佀路蟌站調建

IHARBOUR TUNNEL

CROSSING

EAST HARBOUR CROSSI “海潘輋面之渡等設施

Ta Tam Reservoirs

NEF 30+

BREAKWATER

防波堤

PENG CHAU 坪洲

GREEN ISLAND RECLAMATION

青洲填海區

TSING YI 青衣

CONTAINER PORT 貨櫃碼頭

WEST KOWLOON ̈· RECLAMATION

西九龍填海區

ONG KONG

KOWL

香港島

CENTRAL-WANCHAI

RECLAMATION

中環及灣仔

塡海區

NG HOM BAY

LATION

LEGEND

圖例

Strategic growth

策略性增長區

areas

New typhoon shelter (alternatives under investigation)

4.2

新避風塘( 可供選擇之地區在考慮中 )

Trunk road &

route number

-- 公路及編號

Green Island Reclamation -

for 200 000 persons

靑洲填海區可容二十萬人

Railway MTR

地下鐵路

Railway KCR

九廣鐵路

Aircraft noise

飛機噪音預計度

exposure forecast NEF 30+

contour - 30 & above

等量綫:三十及以上

新灣仔填海區

—

可容六萬人

for

MAJOR DEVELOPMENT PROPOSALS :-

主要發展計劃

Possible future extension to container port

貨櫃碼頭之可能擴展區

West Kowloon Reclamation

for 90 000 persons 西九龍填海區

可容九萬人

Central Reclamation for new commercial

offices & govt./cultural uses

中環塡海區 ·供新商業辦公室及政府/ 文娛用途

Extension of Wanchai Reclamation

for 60 000 persons)

Hung Hom Bay Reclamation

commercial/govt. & for 17 000 persons

紅磡灣填海區 — 供商業/政府用途並

可容一萬七千人

For 16 000 persons

可容一萬六千人

1985 preliminary development plan of Hong Kong's core regions.

1985 preliminary urban development strategy on population distribution and transport network expansion.

colonial rule in Hong Kong. There was no longer a distinction between the areas north of

Boundary Street and south of the Shenzhen River on the one hand, and the land on Hong

Kong Island and south of Boundary Street. The distinction between leased- and ceded-territories

was abolished. As such, the intention of keeping the New Territories as the resource hinterland

for the urban areas lost its relevance.

Hampered by limited land resources, dilapidated pre-war buildings co-existed with newly built public housing developments in old areas that were already overcrowded before the Second World War. These densely-packed public housing estates were desperately short of recreational space and leisure facilities. The flyovers and roads built to mitigate traffic congestion were sometimes positioned just metres away from the windows of the housing

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

199

Challenges for an Evolving City

Cartography by Survey & Mapping Office. Lands Department

permission only

Series AR/9/RD Edition 4 1996

ISBN : 962-567-030-0

DEEP BAY

Light Rail Transit

operational lg 1989

Nim Wan

Black Point

LAU FAU

SHAN

TIN

WENLONG

TUEN MUN

\LUNG KWU TAN

Tap Shek

A 583m CASTLE/ PEAK

1957

Kok

PILLAR POINT

Pearl

Island

TẠI LÀM CHUNG

ISING

TÙNG TÀU

Roofe 3 under "Construction

1977 - 1996

WAN

CHANNEL

KAP SHUI MUI

TAI MO

SHAN

957 m

Tsig

KW. CHUNG

1965

Bar C --ervoir

RECLAMATION & DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG

1968

SRUEN

TAI PO

TAI PO KAU

MARDHUR

Shing Mun Tunnels

operational in 1990

▲ 702m

Sha Tin Race Cour completed in 1978

MA ON SHAN

KUNG

Larn Tunne- Tonal in 199

1931

LION ROCK ▲ 495m

EMTR

WLOON

'Tsuen Wan Line, #öpirational irl 1982.

HOR

HAREC

Eastern Harbour

A operational i

Peng

KOWLOON

Western Harbour Crossing

under construction

VICTORIA

NGONG

PING

Chek Lap Kok

New Birtil

TUNG

CHUNG

LANTAU

Railway under cons

North Lantau Expressway un

TAI HO

struction

Discovery

Bay

YAM O

Chau

TAI SHUT

HANG

ISLAND

MUI WO

200

1963

▲ 934 m

LANTAU PEAK

up to 1887

Cheung Chau

552m A

VICTORIA

·PEAR

MIRS BAY

1978

High Island

ROCKY HARBOUR

PORT SHELTER

TSEUNG KWE

fseung K operati

890

JUNK BAY

Kwun

tional in 1989

MTR

|_opera)

RED

Portal in 1982

KONG) ISLA

1877

HONG ABERDEEN 1932

Ap Lake Ba

Lamma Island

1917

Scale 1

200 000

km 0

6 km

1888-1924

Kowloon-Canton Railway -

operational in 1950

1925-1945

4.3

Coastline at Nov, 1996

Proposed Coastline

Coastline before 1887

Coastline & Reclamation between above dates

Built-up Area

Main Road

Tunnel

Railway

Light Railway Proposed Road

Proposed Railway

TAI LONG

7.000

WAN

6 000

5.000

Hectares

RECLAMATION

4.000

3.000

2 000

1 000

1887

1924

1945

Maps and graphs shown are for general reference only

: 1968-1976

Kowloon-Canton Railway Terminal moved to

1 Hung Hom in 197

Container Terminal reclamation completed in 1976

Cross-Harbour Tunnel,

operational in 19721

Airport Runway extension completed in 1974

1946-1967

Lion Rock Tunnel

operational in 1967

Kai Tak Álpot. reclamation-

completed in 1957

Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)

Reclamation and Development in Hong Kong in 1996.(The map reproduced with permission of the Director of Lands. © The Government of Hong Kong. SAR. Licence No G07/2004.)

201

Challenges for an Evolving City

4.4

Rocks were transported to West Kowloon Reclamation Area by barge to build the breakwater. Opposite the reclamation area is the waterfront of Central and Wan Chai, separated by

Victoria Harbour.

4.5

Inert construction and demolition material was collected by hopper barge at a barging point. (1999)

#14117

#SB181

21411V

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

units. In certain instances, they even cut right through the heart of some estates. The serious waste disposal, noise and air pollution problems caused by congested industrial districts were attributed to undue emphasis placed on the rapid development of industry to the detriment of the environment. Residential housing and schools located in industrial areas were often adversely affected by the nearby surroundings. From the 1980s onwards, when the government devised urban plans to meet economic development needs, it

not only had to consider the two primary goals of reducing population pressures in the urban areas and accelerating industrial development, but it also had to make integrated and longer-term assessments of the development prospects. This ushered in a new phase of town planning in Hong Kong.

In the mid-1980s, the administration reformulated the territory's development framework. In addition to expediting the development of the New Territories, it adopted port expansion as the key impetus to drive economic growth. In 1986, the government unveiled the Territorial Development Strategy. Revisions were made in 1988 in respect of different types of land use planning which included the housing demand, the development of industrial land, the construction of office buildings and hotels, the use of countryside

areas, and the conservation of areas of high landscape and ecological values. On the one hand, the problem of mismatched housing demand and supply had to be tackled head on. On the other hand, a review was required on a host of issues that affected the overall social development, in order to support the rapid economic growth in South China. Those issues included transportation services, the future role of industry, development densities and environmental beautification. Hong Kong aimed to raise its international ranking in the spheres of commerce and finance, information services, tourism, re- export trade and manufacturing, while conserving its precious natural landscape, antiquities and historical monuments. Endeavours were also required to improve the living environment by tackling the pollution problems of air, water, noise and waste treatment236.

Land Use Planning

In 1985, the government conducted district-by-district preliminary studies on the outlook of territorial development and identified the following developable areas: Green Island off the west coast of Hong Kong Island, West Kowloon, East Lantau, Lau Fau Shan, Tsim Bei Tsui, Yuen Long, Wu Kai Sha and Tseung Kwan O. The development of these areas could yield an estimated 4,400 hectares of land. The authorities then carried out further analyses based on population distributions and offered two development alternatives, both capable of supporting a large population:

1. Extensive development of Northwest New Territories (population capacity

480,000 people) and the areas west of the harbour (capacity - 370,000 people); and

2. Extensive development of the areas west of the harbour (population capacity -

900,000 people).

The development of districts lying to the west of Victoria Harbour was central

to both options. Hence, the West Kowloon and the Central-Wan Chai reclamation works were designated as top priority projects in the mid-1980s. In 1993, the authorities undertook a review of the status of urban development and formulated a long-term development plan for five priority districts until 2011: Northwest New Territories, Northeast New Territories, Southwest New Territories, Southeast New Territories, and

the Metro area.

1. With improved cross-border transport arrangements and expanding trade between China and Hong Kong, Northwest New Territories has grown in importance. Following the completion of development works in Tuen Mun, Yuen Long and Tin Shui Wai (Phase I), the second phase of development of Tin Shui Wai, which borders Shenzhen, is a key development project. Improved transport services such as a commuter rail line (West Rail) that links Northwest New Territories with Yuen Long and Tsuen Wan, and the future Tin Shi Wai-Shenzhen ferry services across Deep Bay, highlight the bright future of Tin Shui Wai as a service centre supporting the China-Hong

202

203

Table 4.1 Overview of Reclamation Works (1980-1997)

Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)

Year

Reclamation Area

(unit: hectare)

Area Reclaimed

1980

Siu Chai Wan (4), Sai Wan Ho (1), Quarry Bay Public Filling Area (2), To Kwan Wan Public Filling Area (4.8), Sham Shui Po Public Filling Area (3), Tai Po Industrial Estate (30)

44.8

1981

Western District (2), Aberdeen (0.5), HMS Tamar eastern dock- yard (1.5), Quarry Bay Public Filling Area (4.5), Sam Ka Tsuen in Kwun Tong (0.6), Tai Po Industrial Estate Phase III (0.5)

9.6

4.6 Reclamation in progress at Stonecutters Island.

1982

Western District (6); Sai Wan Ho, Aldrich Bay and Lei Yue Mun (total: 6.1); Quarry Bay Public Filling Area (12), Cheung Sha Wan (4), Tai Po Industrial Estate Phase III (11), Aberdeen (1.5)

40.6

1983

Ap Lei Chau (1.5); Kowloon Peninsula west (4); Tai Po Indus- trial Estate (5); MTR Island Line, roads, sew age treatment works, wholesale fish markets (total: 9.5)

20.0

1984

1985

1989

Cheung Sha Wan (4.5), Stonecutters Island north (6), north shore of Tai Po Hoi (10), north eastern shore of Hong Kong Island (22)

Aberdeen (0.3), Ap Lei Chau (1.5), Aldrich Bay (1), Chai Wan (5), Telegraph Bay (2), Cheung Sha Wan (8), Tai Po Industrial Estate Phase III (7), Stonecutters Island north (2.8)

Telegraph Bay (20)

42.5

27.6

1990

Siu Sai Wan (56)

1990-1994

Hung Hom Bay (36)

1990-1997

West Kowloon (334)

1992

Aldrich Bay (28)

1993

Belcher Bay (10)

1993-1996

Central Reclamation Phase I - area near Blake Pier (20)

Central Reclamation Phase II - HMS Tamar site (5.3)

20.0

56.0

36.0

334.0

28.0

10.0

25.3

Kong cross-border trade. To cope with increasing cross-border business activity between China and Hong Kong, the administration will need to make available ample land for the development of warehouses, container terminals, high-tech industrial

estates and business parks. Within Northwest New Territories, Kam Tin Market has

the potential of developing into a new town, while San Tin and Lok Ma Chau are capable of turning into multi-mode transport interchanges to serve the Pearl River

Delta.

2. The Northeast New Territories region is not a designated high growth area. The districts of Sha Tin, Tai Po, Fanling and Sheung Shui will continue to function as new towns. Suburban areas such as Sai Sha and Pak Shek are suitable for the development of low-density housing. The rural hinterland of northeast New Territories is to be

developed into a nature reserve.

3. The region of Southwest New Territories refers to North Lantau and includes Chek

Lap Kok Airport, southeast Penny's Bay and Tung Chung New Town. Other areas

on Lantau such as Tai Ho could serve as the new town centre, with South Lantau and the outlying islands designated as a nature reserve.

4. The Southeast New Territories region is the extension of Tseung Kwan O district. Tseung Kwan O will follow Sha Tin and become an extension of the main urban areas, with the rural hinterland in Sai Kung set aside as a nature reserve.

5. The priority projects undertaken in the Metro area include the Central-Wan Chai Reclamation, the West Kowloon Reclamation, an expressway system, a western cross-harbour tunnel (Western Harbour Crossing), and an MTR line (Airport Railway) linking Lantau to Central.

The Green Island reclamation area was earmarked for strategic growth. As port activity shifted westwards, the central business district also needed to extend westerly along the northern shore of Hong Kong Island. The proposed development of Green Island was intended to ameliorate traffic jams and form part of the expanded business district of Central, as well as becoming a residential district for city executives.

1993-1997

Airport at Chek Lap Kok (1,248) Tung Chung New Town (67)

Total

Source:

Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1981-2000.

1,315.0

2,009.4

This reclamation plan was later shelved due to concerns over excessive reclamation in Victoria Harbour. Instead, Kai Tak Airport was to be developed into a commercial/ residential area, while the south side of Hong Kong Island was allowed to preserve its suburban character237.

The extent and timing of reclamation works undertaken since 1980, detailed

in Table 4.1, based on information provided in the yearbooks.

Reclamation projects undertaken in the 1980s still concentrated on the city

nucleus, with limited land reclaimed on eastern Hong Kong Island, Western District,

and the eastern and western shores of the Kowloon Peninsula. Sizable reclamation

Challenges for an Evolving City

204

205

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

ГГГ

4.7 Reclamation at Sham Shui Po and Cheung Sha Wan near completion.(1980s)

ГГГГ

ГГГГИ

ГГГГГ

works were carried out in the New Territories, with the Tai Po Industrial Estate project as a prime example. In the 1990s, with the commencement of the Airport Core Programme, the bulk of reclamation works revolved around the new airport, with 1,248 hectares of land reclaimed for Chek Lap Kok Airport, and another 334 hectares created by the West Kowloon Reclamation. These two mega projects accounted for 79 per cent of the total land reclaimed during the 1980-1999 period. Between 1980 and 1999, over 2,000 hectares of land was gained through reclamation. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, the government has taken a cautious approach towards reclamation in the face of considerable community opposition.

From Engineering Development Department to

Civil Engineering Department

To meet the rapid development of the territory, the Public Works Department was restructured into the Lands and Works Branch in April 1982 and its five principal works units became fully-fledged independent departments. The Engineering Development Department kept its English name but it was reorganised into seven offices: Headquarters, Civil Engineering Office, Geotechnical Control Office, Electrical and Mechanical Office, Highways Office, Mass Transit Office and Railway Development Office. The department was responsible for the co-ordination of land resource development; port infrastructure; planning for roads, drainage, electrical and mechanical works, as well as the management

and maintenance of all the above infrastructural facilities. In August 1982, the Electrical and Mechanical Office was detached from the Engineering Development Department and became an independent department. The Highways Office was upgraded to become the Highways Department in 1986, charged with the responsibility for supervising transport networks and the construction and maintenance of roads throughout Hong Kong. On 1 June 1986, the Engineering Development Department was reorganised and renamed the Civil Engineering Services Department. Organisationally, it consisted of four major units: Headquarters, Civil Engineering Office, Geotechnical Office and Railway Development Office. The Civil Engineering Office comprised the Drainage Branch and the General Engineering Branch. Under the aegis of the General Engineering Branch were the Port Works Division and the Development and Airport Division. In 1990, the Railway Development Office was transferred to the Headquarters of the Highways Department. The Drainage Branch gained its independence in 1989 and became the Drainage Services Department, responsible for the design and maintenance of all the sewerage systems in Hong Kong. In 1991, the Civil Engineering Services Department was renamed the Civil Engineering Department in English while retaining its Chinese name. The Mines Division of the Labour Department was transferred to the Island Branch of the Geotechnical Engineering Office. The Director of Civil Engineering concurrently acted as the Commissioner of Mines. The Mines Division was responsible for the manufacture, management, transportation and storage of explosives, as well as the enforcement of legislation and safety regulations with regard to the mining and

use of explosives.

In 1996, the Civil Engineering Department consisted of two main arms: Civil Engineering Office and Geotechnical Engineering Office. The Civil Engineering Office underwent a reorganisation and comprised three branches: General Engineering Branch, Project Management Branch, and Port and Airport Development Strategy Branch. The General Engineering Branch co-ordinated the work of the Development and Airport

Division, the Port Works Division and the Technical Services Division. Under the

207

4.8

4.9

Settlement is reduced from 5-10 years to just 3 months with the use of band drains to draw off water from the marine mud, representing a recent breakthrough in reclamation technology. (photograph taken in Tuen Mun in 1997)

Insertion of 4-inch band drains into the seabed. The small holes on the surface of the drains accelerate water discharge from the marine mud through capillary action. (photograph taken in Tuen Mun in 1996)

4.10 Trailer suction hopper dredger was deployed at the West Kowloon Reclamation to rainbow marine sand.

4.11 Performance of traditional offering ceremonies before work commencement. Ir Lo Yiu-ching, then Director of

Civil Engineering, officiated at the groundbreaking ceremony of the West Kowloon Reclamation.

ガードルブホの住

4.8

4.9

4.10

4.11

Geotechnical Engineering Office were four branches: Island Branch, Mainland Branch, Development Branch and Landslip Preventive Measures Branch. The Civil Engineering Office was responsible for the design, construction and maintenance of all public marine facilities including seawalls, breakwaters and breakwaters; the execution of fairway dredging and management of mud disposal sites; land formation works including feasibility studies, design and execution, and the use of construction and demolition materials in

reclamation and management of public filling areas; the improvement of rural environment

in the New Territories, and the feasibility evaluation of proposed marine works and their impact238.

In 1997, the Works Branch (previously part of the Lands and Works Branch) was renamed the Works Bureau. It became part of the Environment, Transport and Works Bureau after another restructuring which took place on 1 July 2002. In 2003, the Civil Engineering Department consisted of four primary work groups: Civil Engineering Office, Special Duties Office, Geotechnical Engineering Office, and Administrative and Technical Services Branch. Under the Civil Engineering Office, the General Engineering Branch had been abolished; the Land Development Branch (responsible for co-ordinating the Development Division and the Housing Sites Division) had been added, and the Port and Airport Development Strategy Branch had been transformed into the Port

Branch (responsible for administering the Port Works Division and the Technical Services Division). These two branches, together with the Project Management Branch, constituted the three major functional groups of the Civil Engineering Office. The Special Duties Office was made up of the Special Duties (Co-ordination) Division and the Special

Duties (Works) Division. The Geotechnical Engineering Office oversaw four branches:

Hong Kong Island Branch, Mainland Branch, Development Branch (directed the Planning

Division, Materials Division and Special Projects Division), and the Landslip Preventive

Measures Branch. The Administrative and Technical Services Branch had four functional

divisions under its jurisdiction: Administration Division, Survey Division, Accounts and Supplies Division and Technical Services Group. Looking at the transformation

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

209

Robson, J. J.

(1965-1969)

Directors of Civil Engineering from past to present

лис

Skelt, George James (1969-1971)

Whitaker, J. R.

(1971-1973)

Et Lau, Ching-kwong

(2000-2002)

Bell, W. C.

(1973-1975)

Stead, Harry David

(1975-1978)

Chan, Nai-keong

(1980-1982)

Brand, E. W.

(1989-1996)

Don, J. S. (1978-1980)

7x2

Short, Frank Edmond

Nip, Kam-fan

(1982-1984)

(1984-1989)

Lam, Moon-tim

(1996-1999)

Lo, Yiu-ching (1999-2000)

行政及技術服務科

Administration &

Technical Services Branch

土木工程處 Civil Engineering Office

土地拓展科

Land Develop-

ment Branch

港口科

Port Branch

Tsao, Tak-kiang

(2002-present)

土木工程署署長

Director of

Civil Engineering

專責事務處

Special Duties Office

土力工程處

Geotechnical

Engineering

Office

拓展科 Development

Branch

港島科

Hong Kong

Island Branch

工程管理料

九龍及新界料

Project

Managment

Branch

Mainland

Branch

|防止山泥傾瀉科 Landslip Preventive Measures Branch

4.12 Organisation chart of the Civil Engineering Department in 2004.

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

211

4.13 Group photograph of the senior staff of the Civil Engineering

Services Department (November 1990). Its name changed

to the Civil Engineering Department in 1991.

4.14 Group photograph of the senior staff of the Civil Engineering

Department (2003).

4.13

Rose Garden Project

Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

process of the Engineering Development Department into the Civil Engineering Department, its organisation structure and the functions of its works units, one can recognise the pivotal role played by the Civil Engineering Department in the planning and execution of infrastructural projects, the construction and upkeep of port facilities, the proper maintenance of dangerous slopes, and the formation of land and development of the Hong Kong port. On 1 July 2004, the Civil Engineering Department is to merge with the Territory Development Department and form the Civil Engineering and Development

Department.

In the mid-1970s, the pace of new town development slowed down due to a worldwide economic downturn, while the volume of China's exports handled by Hong Kong registered an average annual growth rate of 46 per cent between 1984 and 1989. The Metroplan in the 1980s presented a number of proposals on the development of the urban areas on both sides of Victoria Harbour. It envisaged that by the end of the

twentieth century and the early twenty-first century, Hong Kong's port would be required

to handle much higher volumes of sea and air cargo. The Kwai Chung container port and Kai Tak Airport would be hard pressed to meet the projected demand. From the mid-1980s onwards, key priorities were placed on the development of port facilities with container-handling capabilities that would allow mainland vessels to berth and handle large volumes of cargo, an airport that could serve as regional or international air hub, transportation networks, services industries and telecommunications systems 239.

Airport Core Programme

When Patrick Abercrombie formulated the urban plan for Hong Kong, he noted that Kai Tak Airport was not ideal for air freight operations240. The airport was constrained by limited developable space and could no longer satisfy the burgeoning air transport demand shortly after the war. In 1949, a British administrative officer, David Rees- Williams, urged the Hong Kong government to build another airport. Nevertheless, no action was taken on the proposal until 1967, when the Colony Outline Plan Report No 5 included recommandation with regard to the expansion of Kai Tak Airport. It identified Yuen Long West as a suitable site for the new airport. In 1973, the government commissioned, Ralph M. Parson Co, to undertake a comprehensive review of the air transport system in Hong Kong and formulate a long-term plan. In January 1975, the consultants released a nine-volume, 1,600-page report, complete with 225 illustrations and hundreds of tables. It analysed the projected growth of aviation services in Hong Kong up to 1995 and identified 13 possible sites for the new airport: San Tin, Ha Tsuen, Nim Wan, Tai

4.14

213

Lam Kok (Brothers Point), Chek Lap Kok, northeastern mountain ridges of Lantau,

Chau Kung To (Sunshine Island), Lamma Island, Mang Kung Uk, Sha Tin Hoi, Tolo Channel, Shek Kong Barracks and Cheung Chau.

The government examined the 13 potential locations and rejected seven of them: Ha Tsuen, Tai Lam Kok, the northeastern mountain ridges of Lantau Island, Chau Kung To, Mang Kung Uk, Sha Tin Hoi and Shek Kong Barracks. Upon further evalvation, the authorities regarded Chek Lap Kok as the most suitable location. In 1977, the Civil Engineering Office conducted land development studies and the work included large-scale geotechnical investigations, the testing of reclamation method at

Chek Lap Kok, and preliminary designs for the reclamation and the infrastructure. In August 1978, the Executive Council examined the civil engineering studies on site formation at Chek Lap Kok24.

The Chek Lap Kok Airport plan was shelved in 1983. In 1987, the government engaged experts from at least 12 fields to conduct the Port and Airport Development Strategy study. In March 1988, a panel of consultants made up of Mott MacDonald Hong Kong Ltd, Shankland Cox, Maunsell Consultants Asia Ltd, Wilbur Smith Associates and Coopers & Lybrand Associates Ltd were hired to render advice on port and airport strategy. In April of the same year, the Civil Aviation Department engaged Netherlands Airport Consultants BV to conduct studies on airport site selection242. It presented three options for consideration. The first one was to build the new airport at the western harbour entrance between Lamma Island and Cheung Chau. The second option was to

carry out reclamation at Chek Lap Kok Island for the new airport. The last alternative was to retain Kai Tak Airport and undertake further expansion.

The relevant government departments played an active co-ordinating role in the feasibility studies. Between 1981 and 1983, the government conducted additional

studies on the impact of infrastructural development on North Lantau, and the Engineering Development Department undertook design work for the Lantau Link (connecting Tsing Yi to Lantau) and the coastal roads leading to the new airport243. It also carried out investigations within Hong Kong waters to source suitable sea sand as fill material and engaged Binnie Consultants Limited to employ computerised Water Quality and Hydraulic Models to predict the environmental impact of different reclamation designs. All participating departments in the strategic studies had to assess the economic benefits, the environmental and social impact, the work progress arrangements and the flexibility of alternative plans. In the area of economic efficacy, much attention was given to the growth trend of public spending, and the productivity of manufacturing industries. The Financial Secretary was responsible for capital monitoring and research on the regulatory framework.

In 1989, the panel of consultants and government experts concluded their studies and the Executive Council approved the construction of a new airport at Chek Lap

Kok. On 11 October 1989, the administration announced the decision and estimated

the cost of the port and airport works, together with the other infrastructure, at HK$127

billion. Of the total, port development accounted for 40 per cent and the airport, 30 per cent, with about half of the funding for the port and airport works contributed by the private sector244. The Provisional Airport Authority and the Port Development

معارف

4.15 Aerial view of Kai Tak Airport in 1983.

the

Board were established on 1 April 1990. Between October 1990 and 30 June 1991,

Chinese and Hong Kong governments held talks on the proposed airport, and resulted in the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Construction of the New Airport in Hong Kong and Related Questions.

According to the memorandum of understanding signed by the Chinese and

the British governments on 14 July 1991, the 10 projects of the Airport Core Programme

Challenges for an Evolving City

214

4.16 Panoramic view of Chek Lap Kok Airport. (1996)

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Challenges for an Evolving City

216

were intended to be completed before the reversion of sovereignty on 30 June 1997. These 10 interlinked projects were: a new airport at Chek Lap Kok (with the first runway and associated facilities), West Kowloon Reclamation, the part of Central and Wan Chai Reclamation related to the Airport Railway, North Lantau Expressway, West Kowloon Expressway, Western Harbour Crossing, Route 3 (part), Airport Railway, Lantau Fixed Crossing, and Tung Chung Development Phase [245.

In June 1992, the government amended the development programme and implementation timetable. The Airport Core Programme involved the formation of 1,669 hectares of land: 1,248 hectares for the new airport, 67 hectares for Tung Chung New Town, 334 hectares for the West Kowloon Reclamation, and 20 hectares in Central

and Western District. In 1994, the land development works carried in West Kowloon

also covered the reclamation at Stonecutters Island. The land formed was used for government community facilities, housing, commercial development, and airport roads such as the third cross-harbour tunnel, West Kowloon Expressway and a rail line. The West Kowloon Reclamation was projected to house 159,000 people246.

The airport related reclamation works in Central and Wan Chai stretched from Rumsey Street in Sheung Wan to Causeway Bay, and were expected to yield 108 hectares of land. The works were performed along the waterfront and divided into five phases: three in Central and two in Wan Chai247. The primary objective was to construct the Airport Railway's Hong Kong Station, the Central-Wan Chai Bypass, the Island Eastern Corridor Link and the MTR North Hong Kong Island Line and expand the business district of Central and improve traffic flow along the waterfront. In September 1993,

work commenced on Phase I of the Central Reclamation and yielded 20 hectares of

land between Central and Blake Pier in June 1998. The second phase began in December 1994 and ended in September 1997, with the formation of 5.3 hectares of land at the Tamar Basin for commercial and open space purposes. Phase I of the Wan Chai Reclamation was largely related to the extension of the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre 248. Work took place between March 1994 and July 1997249. Originally, Wan

SKA WAN

4.17 Overview of Reclamation in urban area of Hong Kong.

Chai Reclamation Phase II (WRII) involved the reclamation of 48 hectares of land along the waterfront for the development of infrastructure, residential housing and hotels, a cruise centre and a public park. Owing to restrictions imposed by the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance (Cap. 531) enacted on 30 June 1997 and public concern, the authorities proposed to scale down the reclamation to 28.5 hectares. As for the Central

Reclamation Phase III work (CRIII), which involved the construction of a Central-

Wan Chai bypass road, the government also curtailed the size of reclamation from 32 hectares to 18 hectares250. Both CRIII and WRII works were then suspended, as the government and the opponents to further reclamation failed to reach consensus and became embroiled in litigation. On 27 February 2003, the Society for the Protection of the Harbour (SPH) applied for a judicial review against the decision of the Town Planning Board (TPB) in respect of the draft Wan Chai North Outline Zoning Plan No S/H25/1. On 8 July 2003, the High Court ruled that TPB had failed to comply with Section 3 of the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance. According to the court's ruling, three tests have to be satisfied prior to undertaking any harbour reclamation: 1. There is a compelling, overriding and present public need for reclamation;

2. There is no viable alternative to reclamation; and

3. The proposed reclamation involves minimum impairment to the harbour.

On 26 August, TPB appealed to the Court of Final Appeal against the High Court's decision. On 25 September, SPH sought a judicial review and an interim injunction

Table 4.2 Airport Core Programme Cost Estimates (March 1993)

(unit: HK$100 million)

Govt.

Funds

Project

Funds Loan

Private Total

Sector

New airport at Chek Lap Kok

169

165

102

436

North Lantau Expressway

Lantau Fixed Crossing* (including a railway portion,

121

sea-spanning bridges and Route 3 interchange)

Route 3 (part)

West Kowloon Expressway

Western Harbour Crossing

393

Airport Railway

125

Tung Chung Development Phase

West Kowloon Reclamation

220

537

165

141

986

西九能快速公路

DE PUTERAARAN DUN

ZAR

4.18 West Kowloon development plan, with the

transport network blueprint. (1993)

西區海底邇

DERMA ME 32 AL AR

Scale

•

Challenges for an Evolving City

218

10 Central-Wan Chai Reclamation

11 Public facilities

Total

Lantau Fixed Crossing is now known as Lantau Link. When cost estimation was made on the projects, the allocation of expenditure for the Airport Railway

and Central-Wan Chai Reclamation was not yet determined.

Source:

Pryor, E. G., Gangkou ji jichang fazhan celüe: Xianggang de fazhan jichu (Hong Kong's Port and Airport

Development Strategy: A Foundation for Growth), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1991, p. 79.

over CRIII works, but its application was rejected by the High Court on 6 October. The Court of Final Appeal handed down its judgement on Wan Chai reclamation on 9 January 2004. It substituted the "three tests" adopted by the High Court with an "over-riding public needs" test. On 9 March 2004, the High Court ruled against the SPH's application for judicial review in respect of CRIII and allowed the resumption of work251. The government then announced its intention to appoint an Advisory Committee on Enhancement of the Habourfront to solicit views from the community regarding the remaining proposed reclamation within the harbour. On 29 April 2004, the government announced the composition of the advisory committee252. The reclamation saga has made everyone realise that Victoria Harbour is a precious public asset and a part of Hong Kong's natural heritage. It is incumbent on the authorities to fully evaluate the importance and obtain community consensus prior to undertaking any further reclamation.

The transport corridor of the Airport Core Programme consists of the Western Harbour Crossing, West Kowloon Expressway, the Kwai Chung and Tsing Yi sections of Route 3, Lantau Link, and North Lantau Expressway. All the items were completed before 30 June in 1997 253. The new town at Tung Chung, built along the coastal areas between Tung Chung and Tai Ho, entailed the formation of 67 hectares of land. Besides providing back-up space for the new airport, the land is also used for commercial and

►

residential developments and the construction of public housing blocks, with an ultimate capacity of housing 320,000 people. Development works began in April 1992 and the first phase was completed in the second quarter of 1997.

West Kowloon Reclamation

In 1983, before the implementation of the Airport Core Programme, the Harbour Reclamation and Urban Growth study discussed the West Kowloon Reclamation. The report stated that the development of West Kowloon would not only provide land for the construction of transport infrastructure encompassed by the Airport Core Programme such as the Airport Railway, roads and the Western Harbour Crossing, but would also help alleviate the congested residential and commercial districts on the Kowloon Peninsula 254. The reclamation would provide more recreational and open space, and better social service facilities. It would improve the living environment in West Kowloon, in line with the comprehensive development concept espoused in the government's Metroplan. In 1984, the Executive Council approved the West Kowloon Reclamation proposal, which was incorporated into the development strategy.

Of the 10 core projects covered by the Airport Core Programme, the West Kowloon Reclamation was the most complicated and the largest urban reclamation ever undertaken. It began at Tsim Sha Tsui and extended northwards to cover of Yau

Ma Tei, Cheung Sha Wan and Mei Foo, creating 334 hectares and boosting the size of the Kowloon Peninsula by one-third. One hundred and twenty hectares was used to build the transport corridor leading to the new airport - West Kowloon Expressway, Airport Railway and two stations, and the connection to the Western Harbour Crossing. Another 50 hectares was set aside for the construction of government/institution/community facilities in the form of schools, clinics and social services facilities, indoor recreation centres, police stations, a magistracy, public car parks, and the Stonecutters Island Government Dockyard. Other types of land use were: 59 hectares for public open

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

219

WEST KOWLOON RECLAMATION.

REPLACEMENT

TYPHOON

SHELTER

EXISTING

YAU MA TEI

YPHOON SHELTER

4.19 Blueprint of the Southern Area of

West Kowloon Reclamation. The

seawall and breakwaters are

marked red, with the limit of

planned reclamation area shown in yellow. (1989)

4.20 Distant view of the West Kowloon

Reclamation works from Mid-

Levels, Central.

4.21 Reclaiming the existing Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter was part of the West Kowloon Reclamation project

4.19

4.20

4.21

Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

space, 33 hectares for industrial and commercial development, 20 hectares for new housing, 31 hectares adjacent to the MTR station as a comprehensive development area, and 21 hectares for the Cheung Sha Wan Wholesale Market255.

Cherry Street was used to demarcate the reclamation project into Southern and Northern areas. The Southern area involved four major construction contracts

while the Northern Area entailed two massive contracts. The Southern Area included

the New Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter, the old typhoon shelter nearby, the Yau Ma Tei Public Cargo Working Area, the Stonecutters Island Government Dockyard and the new ferry pier on Jordon Road. The Northern Area encompassed five cargo piers; the Cheung Sha Wan Wholesale Market (equipped with 700 lorry parking spaces); the road network leading to the wholesale market; the Cheung Sha Wan Shipyards; the cargo handling area of the China Resource Company warehouse, and the airport associated transport works, namely, West Kowloon Expressway, Western Harbour Crossing, Airport Railway and Route 3, which connect Hong Kong Island with Kowloon and the Northwest New Territories. The Civil Engineering Department planned and supervised the Southern Area Section works, while the Territory Development Department assumed responsibilities for the Northern Area. Mott MacDonald Hong Kong Ltd acted as consultants. Detailed designs for the Southern Area reclamation started in early 1990 and in the second quarter for the Northern Area256.

The reclamation was implemented in three phases. The 68-hectare New Yau

Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter was the first project item; it started in August 1990 and ended in 1992. Phase II took place between the end of 1992 and 1995. The last phase began in 1999 and involved the reclamation of 13 hectares at the southern end of West Kowloon 257.

There were seven major civil engineering works: the construction of 8.5 kilometres of seawall and breakwaters, 17 kilometres of roads258, as well as rebuilding the affected waterfront facilities, drains, seawater intake chambers and water pumping facilities. It required the dredging of 34 million cubic metres of marine mud and the use of 69 million cubic metres of fill material, and the shoreline was extended by one kilometre.

A total of HK$12 billion259 was spent on this project, $3 billion above the 1993 cost

estimates.

The West Kowloon Reclamation posed more difficulties than the grandiose Tsing Ma Bridge or the Chek Lap Kok reclamation. The project entailed the relocation of existing cargo and passenger piers and warehouses to the new waterfront, while maintaining the normal operation of the old Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter throughout

the work. It necessitated the reconnection of drainage pipes which greatly complicated the task, as the existing sewerage systems in the old West Kowloon district were at or below the sea level. The ensuring traffic congestions and disruptions to urban services

angered some residents. At the same time, the government had to ensure compliance with environmental protection laws by the contractors, and mitigate the impact of construction noise and particulate pollution. To speed up progress, work was sometimes allowed to take place concurrently on two expressway contracts, and three dredging and reclamation contracts. All major projects were completed on schedule by mid- 1997, with the last minor reclamation contract finished by the end of 2003 260.

221

Port Development

STAGE I

{UUSER

RECLAMATION

CORAFAUCTION)

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

In 1973, Director of Public Works J. J. Robson stated that Hong Kong had begun shifting its port development westwards after the end of the Second World War. Prime examples of this shift were the establishment of a satellite town in Tsuen Wan in the 1950s and the construction of the container terminal in the 1960s 261, and the port development projects at the end of the 1980s merely accentuated the westward move. These infrastructural works were distinguished by their massive scale, short completion times and enormous sums.

On 1 April 1990, the government set up the Port Development Board to formulate a long-range blueprint for the Hong Kong port. Infrastructural enhancements undertaken included: the construction of container terminals, the redevelopment of the KCR terminus at Hung Hom, the expansion of the central business areas at Hung Hom Bay and along the waterfront of Central, the provision of additional anchorages in the western part of the harbour, and the construction of a breakwater between Kau Yi Chau and Peng Chau262 for protection. Specific infrastructural additions were: container terminals and back-up land; anchorages and cargo working areas; piers for servicing cargo vessels plying the waters between Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta cities, and bulk cargo handling piers; facilities to handle fuel, coal, industrial chemicals and building materials; mooring and port maintenance service providers; high-capacity deepwater fairways and aids to navigation; typhoon shelters and anchorages to allow storage of dangerous goods, execution of quarantine procedures, and mooring for vessels requiring long- term berthing as well as vessel waiting and cargo working areas. The major port development projects undertaken or to be undertaken are as follows:

• Construction of Container Terminal 8 (CT 8) on Stonecutters Island and Container

Terminal 9 (CT 9) on Tsing Yi;

• Planning of Container Terminal 10 (CT 10) on Lantau Island;

• Dredging of Kellet Bank in front of Green Island, for the installation of buoys displaced

by reclamation works;

• Construction of an anchorage area in the western part of the port, and a 2-kilometre

GIMIN E CREEK

NEELJUSTING

PAUPINE STATION

STAGE II

CONTAINER TERMIDAL #{PROPOSED )

BACRED AREA & POOPSSES 2

STAGE III

La 201 ran NECLAMATION

STADE I

↓ PORPUSED?

4.22 Kwai Chung container port expansion blueprint: determination of reclamation area for additional

berths and back-up areas. (1984)

breakwater between Lamma Island and Cheung Chau;

• Dredging of a new deep fairway west of Lamma Island to create two auxiliary navigational channels to North Lantau, in order to ease congestion in the East Lamma Channel;

• Construction of new typhoon shelters at Hei Ling Chau and Peng Chau in the western

harbour area, and east of Tuen Mun at Siu Lam;

•

Improvement of traffic management of the Ma Wan Channel waterway;

• Construction of pier facilities west of Tuen Mun to facilitate cargo movement to and from the Pearl River, and to provide deepwater areas for industrial use; and

• Provision of a general-purpose cargo working area at Kowloon Bay.

Enhancement of Logistic Capabilities

Hong Kong enjoyed rapid expansion in its re-export trade from the late 1980s to the early 1990s. Since China launched the open-door policy in the 1970s, its foreign trade has grown in leaps and bounds. As Hong Kong was an important trans-shipment centre for Chinese products, the demands made on its container port quickly exceeded its capacity. The Kwai Chung Container Terminal underwent a series of expansion

Challenges for an Evolving City

222

223

Table 4.3 Overview of Kwai Chung Container Terminal Development (1972-2003)

Terminal

Date Commissioned

Terminal Area

Cumulative Back-Up Area (hectare)

Sep 1972

1973

Founding Operator

Jan 1973

18.6

Apr 1976

Modern Terminals Ltd

Kowloon Container Wharf Co Ltd

Hong Kong International Terminals Ltd Modern Terminals Ltd

Sea-Land (Orient) Ltd

Hong Kong International Terminals Ltd

Mar 1976

Modern Terminals Ltd

May 1988-Jan 1989

114

Hong Kong International Terminals Ltd

Nov 1989-Sep 1990

31.5

128

Hong Kong International Terminals Ltd

4.23

1993-1995

190

Modern Terminals Ltd

(CT 8 with a back-up area

of 62 hectares)

Jul 2003

255

(CT 9 with a back-up area of 65 hectares)

Asia Container Terminals Ltd

Modern Terminals Ltd

Hong Kong International Terminals Ltd

Challenges for an Evolving City

Sources:

Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1981-2002.

Xianggang maijin xin jiyuan (Hong Kong - A New Era), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1998, p. 211. Pryor, E. G., Gangkou ji jichang fazhan celüe: Xianggang de fazhan jichu (Hong Kong's Port and Airport Development Strategy:

A Foundation for Growth), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1991, p. 32.

224

just three years after it went into full operation in 1976. By 1980, the terminals had a total berth length of 2,300 metres, and back-up areas of 85 hectares (210 acres). They were able to accommodate six third-generation container ships simultaneously. Between 1980 and 1987, the Civil Engineering Department assisted in the expansion of back-up land and participated in the construction of terminals. The back-up space

rose from 85 hectares (210 acres) in 1980 to 114 hectares (282 acres) in 1987, while

the number of berths increased from six in 1987 to 15 by 1998. Following the completion

of CT 6 and CT 7 at Kwai Chung, the government began the construction of the four-

berth CT 8 on Stonecutters Island in 1991, with an area of 48 hectares (119 acres). In

1992, the administration started preparations for CT 9 on Tsing Yi, to be equipped

with six berths on a 68-hectare site. Since the mid-1990s, the authorities have been

working on the plans for container terminals 10-13. They are to be located on Northeast Lantau and will add 20-plus berths to improve Hong Kong's infrastructural support for the re-export trade. In 1999, in a bid to boost Hong Kong's tourism industry, the government altered the development focus for Northeast Lantau and earmarked it for strategic development of tourism and leisure facilities.

The container throughput at the Kwai Chung Container Terminal posted negative

growth in the year 2001. Nevertheless, during the 23-year period between 1980 and

2003, the number of containers handled by the Kwai Chung container port was on an upward trend. In the year 1991, the terminals handled 22 per cent more TEU than the previous year. This was exceeded by the 30 per cent increase achieved in 1992 - the

EPPERVS19

4.24

4.23 Kwai Chung container port in

1984.

4.24 Kwai Chung container port in

1997.

4.25 Back-up area of the Kwai

Chung Container Terminal,

with reclamation works close

to completion in March 1989.

4.25

. Peng Chau

Table 4.4 Kwai Chung Container Terminal Throughput (1980-2003)

(unit: '000 TEU)

Year-on-Year Growth

Year

1980

Throughput

1,480

1981

1,560

+ 5%

1982

1,690

+ 9%

1983

1,830

+ 8%

1984

2,100

+15%

大欖

Tai Lam

Sha Tau Kok

吉澳

1985

Kat O

2,250

+ 7%

1986

2,700

+20%

1987

3,400

+26%

1988

4,000

+18%

新界

NEW

TERRITORIES

1989

4,440

+11%

1990

5,040

+14%

1991

6,160

+22%

1992

8,000

+30%

鳥

沙

1993

Wu Kal Sh

9,000

+13%

1994

10,000

+11%

九龍

1995

KOWLOON

12,500

+25%

1996

13,200

+ 6%

1997

14,500

+10%

1998

14,650

香港島

大嶼山

HONG KONG ISLAND

LANTAU ISLAND

1999

16,200

+ 1%

+11%

2000

18,100

+12%

白沙灣

Pak Sha Wan

2001

17,800

2002

19,100

+ 7%

2003

20,000

+ 5%

Sources:

Hai Ling Chau

長洲

Cheung Chau

東龍洲

Tung Lung Chau

Chan, Chui-hay and Wong, Tak-sing, The Expansion of the Kwai Chung Container Terminal: A Critical Economic Appraisal: Research Report, Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, MBA Thesis, 1983, p. 22.

Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1981-2002.

Hong Kong - A New Era, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1998.

Hong Kong Port Development Council webpage: http://www.pdc.gov.hk/eng/statistics/hongkong.htm

4.26 In 1995, the Civil Engineering Department examined 92 reinforced concrete piers throughout Hong Kong and reconstructed those

that were worn out.

highest year-on-year growth on record. The port also had a bumper year in 1995, when the throughput grew by 25 per cent year on year (Table 4.4). By 1987, the Kwai Chung container port was ranked the second busiest port in the world, up from its previous ranking of third. A year later, it became the world's busiest container port263. The phenomenal growth in re-export trade spurred government efforts to constantly improve the container terminal infrastructure. Since the mid-1990s, port infrastructure has been accorded the highest planning priority.

The expansion of container terminals has encountered various problems. In 1992, when the administration planned for CT 9 on Tsing Yi, it intended to award two of the berths to Jardine, Matheson & Co Ltd. Owing to opposition from the Chinese side, the project could not proceed. after three years of negotiations, Jardine Matheson

agreed to relinquish its rights to operate the berths. Construction commenced in 1996 and the first berth was commissioned on 22 July 2003. On full completion, CT 9 will operate six berths. With the commissioning of CT 9, container throughput rose to 20 million TEU264 in 2003. By 2005, when CT 9 becomes fully operational, it will have a planned annual handling capacity of 2.6 million TEU265. It is envisaged that CT 9 will help lower charges266 and enhance Hong Kong's competitiveness, thereby accelerating the growth of container port traffic. In recent years, the freight industry has returned to a growth track. It is imperative for the government to reassess the future prospects of this industry and undertake studies on site selection for CT 10 and its viability 267.

New Port Facilities

In 2001, with almost 300 piers located throughout the territory, transport links

Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)

227

Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)

Table 4.5

Pier Work Expenditure (1982-2003)

(unit: HK$'000)

Expenditure

Year

Work Item

1982

Construction-Cheung Sha Wan pier

1982-1985

New North Point vehicular ferry pier

186

1982-1987

Chai Wan temporary pier and public square

427

1982-1988

Second North Point ferry pier and covered pedestrian walkway

1,371

1982-1989

Construction-two Sai Wan Ho piers

55,006

1982-1989

Sham Shui Po pier and phase one reclamation

1,706

4.27 Construction of the Outlying Island Ferry Piers (Central) in progress. (1997)

1983-1984

Construction-Tso Wo Hang pier, Sai Kung

642

1983-1985

Tai Miu Wan (Joss House Bay) pier and reclamation

2,168

1983-1985

Kwun Tong ferry pier, vehicular ferry pier and waiting area

9.499

1983-1985

Extension-Tsim Bei Tsui pier, Deep Bay

592

1983-1987

Mirs Bay holiday camp temporary pier

7,750

1984-1989

Yung Shu Wan ferry pier, Lamma Island

9,771

1985

Construction- one military pier

1985

Construction-one Correctional Services Department pier

1986

Additions-marine police pier facilities

1986-1991

Improvements-Cheung Chau pier

9,199

1987-1989

Construction-three piers at the Western Wholesale Market

1995-1999

Construction -Sok Ku Wan No 2 pier, Lamma Island

31,405

1996-1997

Construction-Gemini Point pier

1996-1998

Construction-three Sai Kung public piers

1997

Construction-Sai Kung and Sam Ka Tsuen piers

1998-1999

Stonecutters Island Government Dockyard jetties

1998-2003

Reconstruction-Kat O Chau, Peng Chau, Cheung Chau and Wu Kai Sha public piers

18,209

Construction-fireboat berth at West Kowloon Reclamation and Tai Pai Kok pier

1999-2001

Reconstruction-Tung Lung Chau public pier

1999-2003

Reconstruction-Pak Sha Wan public pier, Sai Kung

29,637

2000-2003

Reconstruction-Tai Lam Chung pier, Tuen Mun

30,030

2001

Reconstruction- Kadoorie Pier

2001-2003

Total

Reconstruction-Hei Ling Chau pier

15,109

222,707

Sources:

between the outlying islands and the urban areas were efficient and convenient. According to data from the Hong Kong yearbooks and the Treasury, the government invested over HK$223 million on piers between 1982 and 2003. In the 1980s, the major pier projects were headed by the two-pier development at Sai Wan Ho between 1982 and 1989, which involved an investment of HK$55 million. Other high-value projects included: the $9.77 million Yung Shu Wan ferry pier in 1984-1989, the $9.5 million Kwun Tong ferry pier and vehicular ferry pier in 1983-1985, and the HK$9.2 million extension of Cheung Chau pier in 1986-1991. These projects spanned a number of years and each involved sums close to HK$10 million. These were the important pier developments completed in the 1980s. As for the minor pier projects, the work carried out on the temporary pier at Chai Wan in 1982-1987 was the least expensive. It still incurred an expenditure of HK$430,000. This shows the growing levels of investments in public piers. In the 1990s, the majority of pier projects were undertaken on the outlying islands to improve links with the urban areas. The two major projects were the construction of Sok Ku Wan No 2 pier on Lamma Island in 1995-1999, and the redevelopment of Sai Kung's Pak Sha Wan public pier in 1999-2003. These piers cost HK$31.4 million and HK$29.64 million respectively. It is apparent that investment in piers in the 1990s far exceeded that in the 1980s.

By the twenty-first century, pier-building techniques have come more mature and advanced. It cost between HK$10 million and HK$50 million to construct a pier, with an average pier costing HK$25 million 268. The construction of piers is no longer limited to the provision of basic facilities for passenger embarkation and disembarkation, and the loading and unloading of cargo. It also has an aesthetic function and provides of passenger comfort 269.

In 2001, the Civil Engineering Department spent HK$22 million on repairs and maintenance for the 28 ferry piers owned by franchised operators and the 100- plus government and public piers. Of the sum, HK$12 million was related to ferry piers. To reduce the wear and tear on piers and protect the environment, the department

1999-2000

Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1981-2001.

Annual Report of the Director of Accounting Services and the Accounts of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Govern-

ment Printer, 1982-1997.

Accounts of the Government for the Year Ended 31st March, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1998-2003 The Treasury webpage: http://www.info.gov.hk/tsy/intrnet/index.html

plans to replace the timber fenders used on the 28 franchisee-owned ferry piers and the 100-plus public piers with fenders made of recycled plastics. The recycled plastic fenders are made of plastic waste that has undergone special treatment and a pressing

Challenges for an Evolving City

228

229

4.28 Timber fenders are susceptible to wave erosion.

Challenges for an Evolving City.

4.29 Appearance of pier after the installation of plastic fenders.

Environmental Protection

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

process. The material is then reinforced by the addition of fibre glass. These fenders have passed a series of tests such as density, hardness, tensile and compression. They have the same degree of hardness as the timber ones, but generate less friction. The timber fenders have an average life span of five years, which is drastically shortened to just two years when installed at the busy piers. The recycled plastic fenders, on the other hand, are 400-500 per cent more durable. Although plastic fenders are more expensive, they actually cost one-third as much as timber fenders in the long run, after taking into account the cost of maintenance and replacement 270.

In the late 1960s and early 70s, the distance between Central and Tsim Sha Tsui, separated by Victoria Harbour, was about 1,600 metres. The distance was reduced by 50 per cent to just 800 metres in 2003271. Victoria Harbour is shrinking in size, while vessel traffic is increasing. The moving ships are generating bigger waves inside the harbour. After five years of research, the Civil Engineering Department has produced a wave-absorbing seawall that curtails the impact of waves. The conventional seawall is normally a vertical wall. Waves that hit a seawall will be reflected back with an equal amount of force. The larger the force of impact, the stronger the wave reflection. The wave-absorbing seawall is no longer a solid wall, but with holes inside. When waves hit it, part of the wave energy flows inside the seawall through the holes and reduces wave reflection by half. This type of seawall costs $150,000 per metre, about 150 per cent more expensive than the conventional vertical seawall. The Civil Engineering Department conducted trials on this new type of seawall in 2002. After evaluation of trial results, it may consider installing wave-absorbing seawalls at areas in the inner harbour most affected by strong waves.

Sea transport linkage between Hong Kong, Kowloon and the New Territories. has been enhanced by improving pier facilities. As for other port facilities, the primary concern has now shifted to the protection of the harbour and the environment. This reflects the growing importance the community attaches to the natural environment in the twenty-first century.

Environmental - Friendly Fill Material

Since 1990, the government has reclaimed about 2,100 hectares of land for the construction of a new airport, housing units, port facilities, roads and other infrastructure 273. Hong Kong began undertaking epoch-making projects from the 1980s, this prompted the government to source new fill material, using constantly improving methods. In an era where economic development took precedence over everything else, the extraction of seabed resources as fill material was just considered new means of furthering economic development. In 1988, sand was confirmed as a suitable fill material after test samples were drilled from seabeds. In 1989, the Marine Fill Committee of the Geotechnical Engineering Office used computers to manage, allocate and utilise fill material resources based on the requirements of public and large-scale private-sector projects274. It also evaluated seabed marine sand samples obtained from more than ten locations within the waters of Hong Kong 275.

The early years were plagued by low environmental awareness. Many of the reclamation areas were mere rubbish dumping grounds, with little effort spent on waste separation. Beginning in the 1990s, the waste was first collected by the various rubbish transfer stations located throughout the territory. It was then disposed of in the landfills that are managed by the Environmental Protection Department. In 1995, the government decided to restore 13 closed urban landfills and make them environmentally safe for new land uses. Restoration work began on Tseung Kwan O Stages I and II/III, and five other landfills before 1997. For the restoration of landfills at Siu Lang Shui, Ngau Tam Mei, Ma Tso Lung and Gin Drinkers Bay, work was scheduled to begin before the end of 1998276. In 2003, the strategic landfills were located in the remote areas in West, South East and North East New Territories in order to minimise disruptions to the daily lives of the people.

Inert construction and demolition material is used in reclamation as fill. The Civil Engineering Department builds public filling areas in suitable sites to collect

230

231

4.28 Timber fenders are susceptible to wave erosion.

Challenges for an Evolving City

4.29 Appearance of pier after the installation of plastic fenders.

Environmental Protection

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

In the late 1960s and early 70s, the distance between Central and Tsim Sha Tsui, separated by Victoria Harbour, was about 1,600 metres. The distance was reduced by 50 per cent to just 800 metres in 2003. Victoria Harbour is shrinking in size, while vessel traffic is increasing. The moving ships are generating bigger waves inside. the harbour. After five years of research, the Civil Engineering Department has produced a wave-absorbing seawall that curtails the impact of waves. The conventional seawall is normally a vertical wall. Waves that hit a seawall will be reflected back with an equal amount of force. The larger the force of impact, the stronger the wave reflection. The wave-absorbing seawall is no longer a solid wall, but with holes inside. When waves hit it, part of the wave energy flows inside the seawall through the holes and reduces wave reflection by half. This type of seawall costs $150,000 per metre, about 150 per cent more expensive than the conventional vertical seawall. The Civil Engineering Department conducted trials on this new type of seawall in 2002. After evaluation of trial results, it may consider installing wave-absorbing seawalls at areas in the inner harbour most affected by strong waves.

Sea transport linkage between Hong Kong, Kowloon and the New Territories has been enhanced by improving pier facilities. As for other port facilities, the primary concern has now shifted to the protection of the harbour and the environment. This reflects the growing importance the community attaches to the natural environment in the twenty-first century.

Environmental - Friendly Fill Material

Since 1990, the government has reclaimed about 2,100 hectares of land for the construction of a new airport, housing units, port facilities, roads and other infrastructure 273, Hong Kong began undertaking epoch-making projects from the 1980s, this prompted the government to source new fill material, using constantly improving methods. In an era where economic development took precedence over everything else, the extraction of seabed resources as fill material was just considered a new means of furthering economic development. In 1988, sand was confirmed as a suitable fill material after test samples were drilled from seabeds. In 1989, the Marine Fill Committee of the Geotechnical Engineering Office used computers to manage, allocate and utilise fill material resources based on the requirements of public and large-scale private-sector projects274. It also evaluated seabed marine sand samples obtained from more than ten locations within the waters of Hong Kong 275.

The early years were plagued by low environmental awareness. Many of the reclamation areas were mere rubbish dumping grounds, with little effort spent on waste

separation. Beginning in the 1990s, the waste was first collected by the various rubbish transfer stations located throughout the territory. It was then disposed of in the landfills

that are managed by the Environmental Protection Department. In 1995, the government decided to restore 13 closed urban landfills and make them environmentally safe for

new land uses. Restoration work began on Tseung Kwan O Stages I and II/III, and

five other landfills before 1997. For the restoration of landfills at Siu Lang Shui, Ngau

Tam Mei, Ma Tso Lung and Gin Drinkers Bay, work was scheduled to begin before the end of 1998276. In 2003, the strategic landfills were located in the remote areas in West, South East and North East New Territories in order to minimise disruptions to the daily lives of the people.

Inert construction and demolition material is used in reclamation as fill. The

Civil Engineering Department builds public filling areas in suitable sites to collect

230

231

Challenges for an Evolving City

4.30 Pak Shek Kok Public Filling Area. (1998)

Table 4.6 Refuse Transfer Station Distribution (1990-2012)

4.31 The Pak Shek Kok Public Filling Area was used to build Hong Kong Science Parks af- ter site formation works. (1999)

Estimated Recurrent Cost (HK$M/year)

this type of material and form new land. At the end of the twentieth century, the public filling areas were located in places such as Tseung Kwan O, Pak Shek Kok, Tuen Mun, Tsing Yi, Tung Chung and Penny's Bay. Details of the public filling areas are provided in Table 4.9.

Inert construction and demolition material, also known as public fill, includes excavated earth, building debris, rubble and concrete. In 2003, Hong Kong had five pubic filling areas, barging points and stockpiling areas: Fill Bank at Tuen Mun Area 38, Public Filling Barging Points at Quarry Bay and Sai Ying Pun, Mui Wo Public Fill

Facility

Date Commissioned

Designed Capacity (tonne/day)

Capital Cost (HK$ M)

Kowloon Bay Transfer Station

9 Apr 1990

1,800

198

Island East Transfer Station

Sha Tin Transfer Station

16 Nov 1992

1,200

381

29 Oct 1994

1,000

201

Island West Transfer Station

West Kowloon Transfer Station

1 May 1997

1,000

637

19 Jun 1997

2,500

630

North Lantau Transfer Station

1 Jun 1998

1,200

242

Outlying Islands Transfer Facilities

13 Mar 1998

610

303

North West New Territories Transfer Station

14 Sep 2001

1,100

216

North East New Territories

2007

Transfer Station

1,100

496

South East Kowloon

2012

Transfer Station

3,000

804

Source:

Table 4.8

Public Filling Area Distribution (1999-2003)

(unit: million cubic metres)

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

Location

Period in Use

Reclamation Volume

Surcharge Volume

Cumulative Remaining

Intake Capacity

Environmental Protection Department webpage: http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/waste/data/facilities.html

Tseung Kwan O Area 137 Reclamation Stage II Tung Chung Development Phase III A Reclamation Pak Shek Kok Reclamation Stage III

Jordon Road Reclamation Phase III

Oct 1999-Feb 2004

2.73

1.22

3.50

0.45

Dec 1999-Dec 2002

3.52

1.2

4.72

Jan 2000-May 2002

1.10

0.16

1.26

May 2000-Mar 2003

0.38

Table 4.7 Landfill Distribution (1993-1995)

Pak Shek Kok Remaining Works

Aug 2000-Apr 2002

2.25

0.58

2.83

Facility

Date Commissioned

Designed Capity

(million cubic metres)

Capital Cost (HK$ million)

Estimated

Tseung Kwan O Town Centre Reclamation Phase III Stage II

Mar 2001-Apr 2003

1.12

0.42

1.54

Recurrent Cost (HK$ million/year)

Tuen Mun Area 38 Reclamation Stage II

Sep 2001-Oct 2004

3.91

1.20

5.11

West New Territories Landfill

19 Nov 1993

2,190

132

Infrastructure for Penny's Bay Development Contracts 1 & 2

Mar 2002-Jun 2006

3.59

0.50

3.81

0.28

South East New Territories Landfill

26 Sep 1994

2,661

189

North Tsing Yi Reclamation

Jul 2002-Jul 2006

0.20

0.03

0.23

North East New Territories Landfill

Source:

1 Jun 1995

1,176

118

Fill Bank at Tseung Kwan O Area 137

Fill Bank at Tuen Mun Area 38

Oct 2002

5.66

2.59

3.07

Jun 2003

3.20

1.39

1.81

Environmental Protection Department webpage: http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/waste/data/facilities.html

Source:

232

Civil Engineering Department internal records.

233

4.33 Sorting facilities at the Tuen Mun Area 38 Public Filling Area.

(2001)

Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

Challenges for an Evolving City

234

4.32 Aerial view of the Tuen Mun Area 38 Public Filling Area. (2001)

Stockpiling Area, and Fill Bank at Tseung Kwan O Area 137. The Port Works Division of the Civil Engineering Department is in charge of the issuance of dumping licences to lorry owners, authorising the disposal of public fill in the public filling facilities.

Disposal of Dredged Mud

Since 1993, the Fill Management Committee has classified mud dredged from seabeds into contaminated and uncontaminated types. According to the licensing regulations of the Environmental Protection Department, the disposal of contaminated mud falls

under the jurisdiction of the Fill Management Division of the Civil Engineering Department. The Port Works Division is responsible for the design of the purpose-dredged confined contaminated mud pits at East Sha Chau277, the only disposal site in Hong Kong for contaminated mud. Staff from the Civil Engineering Department cap the seabed pits after the dumping. The Civil Engineering Department has undertaken geotechnical,

environmental and ecological studies in the waters around East Sha Chau to assess the impact of mud dredging and dumping works. It also looks for feasible ways to minimise the adverse impact on mud dumping on the marine environment. The confined contaminated mud pits are subjected to stringent monitoring. When the deposited mud reaches the designed level, the mud pits will be capped by a layer of clean mud up to three metres in thickness to separate the contaminated sediments from the marine environment 278. The mud layer covering the seabed pits is of the same type as that found in the nearby waters. After seven years of environmental monitoring, the department observed no adverse trend in water quality, sediments or marine life in the vicinity of East Sha Chau279. Designed in 1996, the mud pits had a capacity of just 300 million cubic metres 280 At the end of 1997, the Civil Engineering Department utilised an empty marine sand borrow pit for the contained disposal of contaminated mud.

The sediment classification system used in Hong Kong between 1992 and 2001

classified dredged sediments into three categories based on the level of contamination

by seven heavy metals. If the sediments contained one or more of the listed heavy

metals with contamination levels within Class C limits, they had to be sent to East Sha

Chau for disposal. On 1 January 2002, the government introduced a new testing system

for dredged sediment. In addition to the chemical tests prescribed by the 1992 Sediment

235

4.34 Grab dredgers were deployed at

the Penny's Bay Reclamation. (2000)

4.35 Trailer suction cutter

dredgers were de- ployed at the Penny's Bay Reclamation. (2000)

ATTENDAV

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)

Challenges for an Evolving City

236

Classification System, biological tests are made to accurately determine the toxicity level. The new system complies with the 1996 Protocol to the Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter-the London

Convention. Besides chemical testing of heavy metals to determine contamination levels, the Class C dredged material must now undergo biological screening. Should it fail the test, it will require special disposal or treatment. The Civil Engineering Department

conducted testing on the toxic mud dumped at East Sha Chau and found that between 20 and 50 per cent of the sediments passed the biological tests 281. Sediments that are classified as non-toxic under the new system do not require contained disposal. The new system could slash the cost of disposing dredged or excavated sediments and prolong the service lives of the East Sha Chau contained contaminated mud pits 282.

The East Sha Chau contained contaminated mud pits are close to Lung Kwu

Chau and Sha Chau, a marine sanctuary for the Chinese white dolphins. There are increasing concerns over the water quality in that area. The green group, Friends of the Earth, criticised the dumping of fill material for reclamation on the ground that it would increase the quantity of suspended particulates in seawater. This will lead to diminished levels of dissolved oxygen, making it difficult for the micro-organisms in

the sea to absorb the essential nutrients such as sunlight and oxygen. Eventually, these micro-organisms will die and inflict severe damage on the ecological environment283.

According to the Environmental Protection Department monitoring statistics on dredged marine mud, the waters off East Sha Chau do not contain high concentration

of heavy metals. In actual fact, the marine mud inside the dolphin sanctuary, which

is close to the mouth of the Pearl River, contains much higher levels of heavy metals. To determine whether the disposal of marine mud could result in higher seabed toxicity, the Environmental Protection Department monitored the toxicity levels of mud pits that contained contaminated mud, as well as the marine mud outside the mud pits and in some smaller stretches of waters. The 1999-2002 data revealed that higher toxicity levels were recorded by marine mud lying far away from the capped mud pits than

that located close to the pits. Marine mud taken from the waters off Lung Kwu Chau, which forms part of the dolphin sanctuary, showed higher levels of heavy metals such as potassium, copper, mercury and lead, than that found at East Sha Chau284. As a result, the green groups pressed the government for onshore disposal of dredged sediments. The government will be facing a Herculean task to find hundreds of hectares of suitable space within Hong Kong to accommodate the sediments, not to mention the air pollution risks associated with onshore sediment disposal 285. Diverse methods of sediment disposal are employed in different countries. Hong Kong elects to place toxic sediments inside capped mud pits, while China settles on the method of disposing of sediments in relatively uninhabited areas that are endowed with strong water currents, and makes use of the currents to flush and dilute the toxic waste 286.

The dredged sediments do not always end up in the mud pits. An example of alternative treatment is the clearance of shipyards undertaken at Tsing Yi North in August 2001 to make way for reclamation. After the clearance, the Civil Engineering Department engaged independent environmental consultants to study the extent of land contamination at the shipyards. The consultants found that an estimated 90,000 cubic metres of soil was contaminated by hydrocarbons and heavy metals. For soil contaminated with both hydrocarbons and heavy metals, the Civil Engineering Department applied biopiling to facilitate biodegradation of the hydrocarbons through the micro- organisms inside the soil. The solidification method was then applied to soil contaminated by heavy metals by adding cement and water, resulting in a soil-cement mixture. After the mixture dried completely, it formed a hard mass and locks up the heavy metals. It will take the department four years to complete the soil decontamination work on an area of just 3.2 hectares287. This illustrates the expensive and time-consuming procedures involved in treating sediment waste.

Since 1990, the authorities have expended HK$290 million on marine fill resources and sediment disposal management. Of this sum, approximately HK$170 million was

237

Challenges for an Evolving City

238

SHA CHAU

Marine Traffic Limit for Contaminated Mud Disposal

CMP #

CMP (Va

CMP IVb

CMP (Va

/CMP JUD

CMP Ic

CMP Wild

CMPI

CMP lic

CMP lib

NEILINGDING ISLAND

Tai O

Breakwater

HONG KONG INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Outer Deep Bay

MARINE FILL RESOURCES, MUD DIS SAL AREAS AND MAJOR RECLAMATIONS

DISSAL

YANTIAN

MIRS BAY

MFC

Area of proposed reclamation

Extent of reclamation under review

DEEP BAY

Tuen Mun

North of Lantau

Urmston Road

East

EAST SHA CHAU

CONFINED

CONTAMINATED

MUD PITS

GUISHAN ISAND

West Sokos-

HONG KONG INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

ZHIZHOU ISLANDS

ALLOCATIONS OF MARINE BORROW AREA

Brothers 4Mm*

Tai Ho

Penny's Bay Stage 2

Tung Chung

LANTAU ISLAND

*•. SOKOS

Allocation Project (Contrect Name!

Allocated

Ho.

Fill Volume

#23

C19 - Engineering Works for Backup Area & Infrastructure

37.00

NEW TERRITORIES

TSING

Jordan Road Reclamation Phase Ill

Green Island

Southeast Kowloon

Development

KOWLOON

Western Coastal Road

& Road P2

Tseung

Kwan O

Central Reclamation Phase III

Route 7

Wan Chai Reclamation

Phase II

TOWN

CENTRE

EXTENSION

HONG KONG ISLAND

#23 (Reserved)

#23

Hei Ling Chau Typhoon Shelter

#23

South Tsing Yi 31 Mm

West of Sulphur

Channel

14Mm* (8 Mm3)

Yung Shue Wan

Sai Wan

CHEUNG CHAU

South Cheung Chau

MMA

East Lamma Channel

(South)

44 Mm3

#30 West Po Toi

18Mm

South Mid-T

East Tung Lung Chau

PO TOI

10 Km

WALINGDING ISLAND

SCALE

SANMEN ISLANDS

4.36 Marine fill resources, mud disposal grounds and major reclamations in Hong Kong.

East of Ninepin

NANAO

PANYU

DONGGUAN

SHENZHEN

Pear

ZHONGSHAN

River

VICTOR ROCK (under water)

Eastem Waters

Estuary

South of Victor Rock

35 Mm3

Key Plan

18 Mm3

10 Mm❜

24 Mm3

1 Mm3

24 Mm3

-9 Mm3

32 Mm*

32 Mm❜

TUONING ISLANDS

HUDONG

HUYANG

HONG KONG

Reclamation in progress

Area currently gazetted for sand dredging and mud disposal

Allocated marine borrow area

Open sea mud disposal area (Uncontaminated mud)

Exhausted sand borrow pit for disposal of uncontaminated mud (dkshed argin – proposed)

Contained disposal pit for contaminated mud

(F = {1}}ed + copped, & – active. ? – planned.

FG-filled and being capped)

Sand deposit

Extent prior to dredging

Sand deposit with

constraints on dredging

(0.9. awironmental limitations,

thick overburden, etc. }

Sand deposit - not being used

on environmental or other grounds

Proposed Major Road or Highway

Nota:

1. Reclamation areas are indicative. 2. Volume of sand -

14km

(8km)

Existing Remaining after extraction

for current allocations

This drawing supersedes MFC-0016

Up-to-date Information is available from

MFC Secretariat. CEO. CED.

Tel (852) 2762 5555. Fax (852) 2714 0113

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MARINE FILL RESOURCES,

MUD DISPOSAL AREAS

|AND MAJOR RECLAMATIONS

FILE NO

8 March 2004

DATE

GCFM 5 / 2 / 20 - 1C

DRAWING NO.

MFC-001H

SCALE

AS SHOWN

-51 Mm

PREPARED BY

24 Mm3

28 Mm

5 Mm❜

DANGAN ISLAND

Locations and Volumes of Sand Already Extracted

PORT WORKS DIVISION

CIVIL ENGINEERING OFFICE CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

GOVERNMENT OF THE HONG KONG

SPECIAL ADMINISTRATIVE REGION

on behalf of the MARINE FILL COMMITTEE

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

239

4.37 Shing Mun River, Sha Tin.

4.38 Bioremediation is used to remove odours emitted

from the bed sediments of the Shing Mun River.

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)

spent on field investigations, with the balance of HK$120 million outlaid on environmental impact assessments and other consulting services. The two disposal sites for uncontaminated mud were located south of Cheung Chau and east of Ninepins. Since October 1994, the Fill Management Committee has backfilled the empty sand borrow pits with uncontaminated mud. Backfilling works were carried out at the exhausted marine borrow pits located south of Tsing Yi, north of Lantau, east of Tung Lung Chau and the Brothers 288. Maintenance dredging of the harbour, navigational fairways, anchorages, typhoon shelters and drainage outfalls is indispensable. The official policy is to avoid seafloor dredging save in exceptional

circumstances.

Dredging undertaken in present-day reclamation projects involves the implementation of mitigation measures to minimise the adverse impact on the environment. Such measures include the use of silt curtains around the dredging areas and closed grab

dredgers. The aim is to curtail the release of contaminants from dredged marine sediments, so as to avoid causing damage to the surrounding waters 289.

In 1999, the administration amended the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance

and expanded the protected geographical area from central Victoria Harbour to Tsing Yi and Lei Yue Mun290. The government introduced the Harbour Area Treatment Scheme

and in 2001, sewage collected from Kowloon and the northeastern part of Hong Kong Island was sent to the Stonecutters Island Sewage Treatment Works through a deep tunnel conveyance system. In addition to going through a screening process, 70 per cent of the effluent is subjected to chemical treatment.

Improvement of the Shing Mun River

The development of Sha Tin New Town created enormous land resources for industrial and housing uses. Beginning in the 1980s, effluent generated by commercial, industrial, livestock and domestic sources was discharged indiscriminately into the

Shing Mun River, resulting in severe pollution. This caused the accumulation of contaminated. sediments on the riverbed and released obnoxious odours. In the early 1990s, the government enacted the Water Pollution Control Ordinance (Cap. 358). While it succeeded in preventing further worsening of the river, it failed to remove the polluted sediments accumulated on the riverbed. In May 2001, the Civil Engineering Department, in association with the Environmental Protection Department, began the first stage of the Shing Mun River improvement works. The project consisted of three major parts:

1. Bioremediation: A chemical mixing and dosing system and injection equipment were imported from Canada. With the use of a bioremediation vessel, the diluted calcium nitrate solution would be injected into the polluted sediments to provide oxygen for oxidation. This accelerates the decomposition of organic contaminated material in the sediments. A total of 22 hectares of contaminated riverbed was to be treated.

2. Dredging: Dredging was to be performed on a section of the Shing Mun River between the Hong Kong Sports Institute and Man Lai Court in Tai Wai. The purpose was to remove the large volumes of contaminated sediments built up on the riverbed, as well as removing the silt that blocked the stormwater drain outlets.

3. Artificial river bank: A 250-metre section of artificial river bank was to be reconstructed.

The first stage works cost HK$45 million. Bioremediation works began in May 2001 in the Shing Mun River main channel opposite Garden Vista, Jat Min Chuen, City One Shatin City One and Garden Rivera, to remove the polluted sediments 29'. The project was completed in January 2003292. In May 2003, the Civil Engineering Department started the second stage of environmental improvements. The works involed had an estimated cost of HK$39.9 million and were expected to take three years to complete. The major work items were:

1. Bioremediation: Bioremedial work focused on the midstream and upstream stretches of the river's main channel, namely, areas not covered by the first phase and involved approximately 19 hectares of polluted riverbed.

2. Dredging: Dredging was to be concentrated on the downstream stretch of the Shing

Challenges for an Evolving City.

240

241

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)

Mun River and the drain outlets. It would involve the dredging of about 10 hectares

of riverbed and the removal of 110,000 cubic metres of contaminated sediments

from the riverbed.

3. Artificial river bank: It would be necessary to line certain sections of the river embankment with one-metre-wide artificial river banks, so as to prevent the exposure of rubble and sediments during low tide.

The Civil Engineering Department is responsible for monitoring both phases of environmental improvement works on water quality and sediment treatment and removal. In October 2003, tests conducted by the Environmental Protection Department revealed that the concentration of odour-causing sulphides in sediments fell from 2,294 milligrams per litre of water (2,294 mg/l) pre-bioremediation to less than 5 mg/l

after bioremedial treatment, a reduction of over 99 per cent. The level of E. coli

found in the Shing Mun River, a main indicator of water quality, dropped by 99.9 per cent. Before the commencement of improvement works in 2001, an environmental group, Green Power, commissioned The Open University of Hong Kong to carry out tests on the water quality of the Shing Mun River. The test results found 270,000 colony-forming units of E. coli per 100 millilitres (270,000 cfu/100 ml) of water. By 2001, the E. coli count dropped to 30,000 cfu/100 ml. Improved results were obtained

in 2003 with bacteria counts of less than 1,000 cfu/100 ml recorded from January to June. The January count was the best with only 140 cfu/100 ml 293.

In 2003, while the water quality of the Shing Mun River made significant improvements, the river recorded more frequent red tide outbreaks. More in-depth research is required to find out what causes the formation of red tide. A spokesman from the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department pointed out that red tide occurrence was attributable to many factors such as sunlight, nutrients, salinity, water temperature and currents, and was not necessarily related to bioremediation works. An academic opined that to achieve permanent improvements in water quality, attention must be paid to the polluted water of Tolo Harbour, which backflowed into the Shing Mun River during high tide and contaminated the river water 294.

The Shing Mun River has undergone dramatic changes in the past two decades. In the early 1980s, it was abused by discharges of human, industrial and livestock waste. Since 2001, large-scale restoration work has been carried out to improve the water quality. The treatment of the river bears testimony to society's rising demand for a better ecological environment. Nowadays, improvements to water quality are a vital link in conserving the ecology of Hong Kong. The management of river water quality within the territory of Hong Kong should be extended further and not confined to the Shing Mun River in Sha Tin. The Civil Engineering Department also must make dedicated efforts to improve the quality of life for the people of Hong Kong.

Tourism Facilities

Hong Kong Disneyland

In 1993, the government contemplated building container terminals on Northeast Lantau. This idea was shelved in 1999 when the administration decided to develop this area into a strategic tourist and recreational district. On 13 August 1999, the government gazetted the new blueprint for Northeast Lantau, Penny's Bay and Sunny Bay (formerly Yam O). On 9 November 1999, the Civil Engineering Department released the environmental impact assessment report on the development of Hong Kong Disneyland and the associated infrastructure at Penny's Bay. Eight days later, the administration sought HK$13.569 billion of funding from the Finance Committee for the proposed works295. The international theme park development involves the following projects:

• Reclamation of 280 hectares at Penny's Bay and construction of 3.5 kilometres of seawall;

• Reclamation of 10 hectares of land at Sunny Bay with about 0.7 kilometres of seawalls;

• Road works

1. Building a 4.5-kilometre dual two-lane/three-lane carriageway to connect the

proposed MTR station at Sunny Bay to Hong Kong Disneyland

2. Building a 3.5-kilometre resort road around the theme park

3. Building an 800-metre central pedestrian walkway at the centre of the park;

• Construction of a new MTR Penny's Bay rail line linking Sunny Bay to Penny's Bay;

• Development of Hong Kong Disneyland which includes hotels, retail, dining and entertainment facilities, and a dangerous goods store;

• Construction of two public/ferry piers equipped with four berths;

• Construction of public transport interchanges near the MTR stations at Sunny Bay and Penny's Bay;

• Construction of a public water recreation centre including a 12-hectare artificial lake;

Challenges for an Evolving City

242

243

香港迪士尼樂園環境影響評估研究

Hong Kong Disneyland Environmental Impact Assessment

4.39 On 9 November 1999, the

Civil Engineering Depart-

ment announced the Hong Kong Disneyland Environ- mental Impact Assessment.

4.40 Contract for the Penny's Bay Rec- lamation Stage I project was signed on 15 May 2000. The project involved the reclamation of 200 hectares of land with 3km of seawall and a temporary access road, for a contract sum

of HK$3.98 billion.

✰

Chit Inginering Department

期

Stage 1

I war Penny Bay Reclai

Contract Signl - fremont

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)

Challenges for an Evolving City

244

• Construction of a 3.5-hectare arboretum for educational purpose;

• Construction of a sewerage network to channel sewage to the sewage treatment

works at Siu Ho Wan;

• Construction of a stormwater drainage system including a 1.2-kilometre open drainage

channel west of the reclamation, and the box and pipe culverts; and

• Construction of government/institution/community facilities including two police posts and a fire and ambulance station 296

According to estimates made in September 1999, land formation cost would amount to HK$8.68 billion, with another HK$4.889 billion spent on associated infrastructure and government/institution/community facilities. The most costly item is the HK$1.52 billion sum budgeted for road works. The reclamation used marine sand and

public fill as fill material. The reclamation and formation works for Phase I of the

theme park project were paid out of the Capital Works Reserve Fund and cost about HK$ 4 billion upon completion. The government reached an agreement with The Walt Disney Company to grant, by way of a private treaty, a 126-hectare site at Penny's Bay to Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd, a joint-venture company formed by the government and The Walt Disney Company, for a period of 50 years with a renewal right for another 50 years. Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd is required to pay an annual government rent equivalent to 3 per cent of the rateable value of the site, which carries a value of HK$4 billion.

The estimated cost for Hong Kong Disneyland Phase I amounts to HK$14.1 billion. The government and The Walt Disney Company have agreed to finance the construction of the theme park by a mixture of debt and equity at an approximate ratio of 60:40. This equates to HK$8.4 billion in loans and HK$5.7 billion in equity. The Walt Disney Company is to inject $2.45 billion equity by subscribing for shares at HK$1 per share for a 43 per cent ownership in the joint-venture company. It is allowed to dispose of some of these shares but its shareholding must not fall below 1.9 billion

shares. The government puts up HK$3.25 billion at the same issue price and holds 57 per cent of the new company. After the first year of operation, the government is free to sell its shares without a minimum shareholding restriction. The HK$8.4 billion borrowing consists of commercial borrowing of HK$2.3 billion and a loan from the government for HK$6.1 billion. The theme park operator has to repay the commercial loans in full within the first ten years of operation. Repayment of the government loan then follows and this loan is to be repaid within 25 years after the opening of the theme park, with interest rates of between prime rate minus 1.75 per cent or prime rate per annum297

In December 1999, the administration entered into formal agreements with The Walt Disney Company and Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd in respect of the development of Hong Kong Disneyland. Reclamation began at Penny's Bay in May 2000, followed by other infrastructural works such as roads, drainage system, sewers and landscaping.

On 1 March 2000, the Civil Engineering Department completed the environmental assessments in accordance with the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance (Cap. 499) and forwarded its findings to the Director of Environmental Protection Department. The assessment exercise focused mainly on the cumulative environmental impact of the theme park development on Northeast Lantau which included Penny's Bay, Sunny Bay, Tsing Chau Tsai East and the connecting roads. It also carried out environmental

assessments on the provision of infrastructure such as leisure facilities, utilities services,

drainage system, slope upgrading and beautification works. Between April and July 2000, the Director of the Environmental Protection Department issued the relevant environmental permits for the project in accordance with the ordinance.

Generally speaking, Hong Kong Disneyland impacts on the environment in

two main areas:

245

4.41 Cheoy Lee Shipyard, located on north-

eastern Lantau. (2000)

Challenges for an Evolving City

246

1. The adverse impact of Penny's Bay reclamation on mariculturists in adjacent waters - Between August and December 2000, the work at Penny's Bay generated suspended sediment plumes and turned the water turbid. These plumes caused massive deaths

among red snapper, headgrunt and white blocked snapper, in the Ma Wan and Cheung Sha Wan fish culture zones. These fish species have low tolerance of suspended sediments and were infected with skin lesions that ultimately led to their deaths. The authorities had to compensate the mariculturists based on the findings of an independent review panel298. In addition to ex gratia allowances, the government

had to make compensation payments to mariculturists in Ma Wan and Cheung Sha Wan299.

2. The contamination problems associated with the decommissioning of Cheoy Lee Shipyard located on the north and east shores of Penny's Bay - Cheoy Lee Shipyard, which commenced business in 1964, was engaged principally in boatbuilding, repairs and maintenance. The land occupied by the shipyard was required for the theme park development. In April 2001, the administration compensated the shipyard owner for land resumed. In exchange, the shipyard agreed to voluntarily surrender the site that it occupied. An environmental impact assessment commenced in April and found that 87,000 cubic metres of soil on the site were contaminated. Of the polluted

soil, 48,000 cubic metres was tainted by metals and 9,000 cubic metres by a combination of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOC) and metals. The remaining contaminated 30,000 cubic metres of soil was located in

the southeastern part of the shipyard site. The contaminants were a mixture of dioxins,

metals, TPH and SVOC.

The metal contaminated soil was to be solidified onsite by cement after excavation.

For soil that was tainted by TPH, SVOC and metals, it was to be despatched to To Kau Wan upon excavation for biopiling treatment, followed by cement solidification to immobilise the remaining metals. Meanwhile, soil that was polluted by dioxins, metals, TPH and SVOC was dug up and sent to a thermal desorption plant established at To

4.42 Penny's Bay Reclamation Stage I in progress. (2002)

4.43 Penny's Bay Reclamation Works were mostly completed by April 2004.

Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

4.44 Computer simulated view of Hong Kong Disneyland upon completion.

Kau Wan for treatment. The treatment yielded an organic oily residue, which was to be transported to the Tsing Yi Chemical Waste Treatment Centre in batches for incineration. The soil that was subjected to thermal desorption would then be solidified by cement to immobilise the remaining metals 300. Owing to the need to treat the contaminated soil, the government had to allocate additional funds for the decommissioning project in order to comply with the requirements of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) study 301

The theme park will stage nightly 12-minute fireworks and laser displays between 9:00 pm and 9:30 pm. The authorities have formulated safety and security regulations to govern this activity. Supervision and evaluation of the impact of fireworks displays on the ecological environment are made by way of licensing. When the theme park stages fireworks or laser displays, it is required to comply with the conditions prescribed by the licence. As the licence is only valid for one year, the authorities can alter the licensing conditions on renewal if necessary. To minimise impact on the surrounding environment, the operator, Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd, has made an initial commitment to exclude the purchase of any fireworks that contain chromium, lead, mercury, arsenic, manganese, nickel or zinc in their formulation. The Environmental Protection Department has also placed restrictions on the level of noise generated by fireworks displays to comply with the Leg, 15 min 55dB(A) limit at the relevant noise sensitive receivers 302,

In response to the EIA study on the construction of an international theme park in Penny's Bay of Northeast Lantau and its essential associated infrastructure, the Civil Engineering Department is committed to the following measures

303.

1. Establishment of an independent Environmental Project Office to oversee the cumulative

effect of construction works undertaken on Northeast Lantau;

2. Planting of not less than 9 hectares of woodland to compensate for the loss of

1.8 hectares of woodland at Ngong Shuen Au due to construction works;

3. Construction of 4.3 hectares of sloping armour rock/concrete seawalls at Penny's Bay and Sunny Bay, and the deployment of 4,350 cubic metres of artificial reefs at Port Shelter, Sai Kung, to enhance the overall marine ecology;

4. Survey and excavation of archaeological sites at Wan Tuk, Penny's Bay and Cheoy

Lee Shipyard to preserve historical relics; and

5. Introduction of a large number of plant species native to South China to beautify

Penny's Bay and maintain the ecology of the existing woodland.

Three methods of filling operations were employed at the Penny's Bay reclamation: bottom dumping, rainbowing and sandfilling by pipeline to designated areas. Either sand or rocks up to a few metres high were then piled on top, and a large cylindrical

vibrating probe was then repeatedly inserted into the ground to carry out vibrocompaction to accelerate soil settlement. Reclamation was performed around the clock, seven days a week 304. The project deployed 10 of the largest trailer suction hopper dredgers in the world, with the largest one capable of holding 25,000 cubic metres of sand. This was twice the size of those dredgers used in the Chek Lap Kok reclamation. The

dredging works removed a total of 40 million cubic metres of sediment, followed by the placement of 70 million cubic metres of sandfill 305. Approximately 3.7 million cubic metres of fill material was deposited each week, the fastest in Hong Kong's reclamation history306. The reclaimed site has been subjected to stringent settlement

monitoring since its completion in 2002. It was estimated that the level of soil settlement would be less than 0.5 metres in the next 50 years 307. The Penny's Bay Reclamation

Stage I works commenced in May 2000 and was completed by December 2002. The site was handed over to Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd in January 2003 for the development of Hong Kong Disneyland. The remaining works are expected to be completed one after another before mid-2005308. The Hong Kong government anticipates the creation of 18,400 jobs on the opening of the Disney theme park, with the figure rising to 35,800 over a 20-year period. It also estimates that the project will boost Hong Kong's economy by HK$148 billion over the next 40 years, attracting millions of tourists to Hong Kong each year309.

249

Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)

Summary

Through extensive reclamation, the urban districts tripled in size between 1959

and 1983. The proportion of industrial and commercial land progressively increased, countered by reductions in agricultural land and swamps. Beginning in the late 1970s, the government started planning for a new airport at Chek Lap Kok and formulated the Airport Core Programme. This programme mapped out the growth strategy for Hong Kong for the next two decades. The blueprint of the 1980s focused on land

utilisation in districts such as the northwestern part of Hong Kong Island, West Kowloon, Tsuen Wan and Kwai Chung; and the replanning of urban transport and environment.

Reclamation was the means employed to produce the required land. Large-scale reclamations included the 1,248 hectares of land formed for Chek Lap Kok Airport, the North Lantau Expressway project, the 334-hectare West Kowloon Reclamation and the northwest

Stonecutters Island works. Massive harbour reclamation has altered the face of Victoria

Harbour, resulting in the westward shift of the freight transport nucleus to the Rambler Channel, Tsuen Wan and Kwai Chung areas. After the reprioritisation of Hong Kong's development focus which extended from the north shore of Hong Kong Island and the

Kowloon Peninsula towards West Kowloon and Northwest New Territories, the territory

has evolved from a single-nucleus city into one made up of multiple nuclei.

In the 1980s, the administration developed the New Territories with the construction

of new towns located at Sha Tin, Tai Po, Yuen Long, Tuen Mun, Fanling, Sheung Shui, Tseung Kwan O and Tung Chung. They were comprehensive development areas encompassing a whole range of residential dwellings, commercial developments and industrial facilities. Their emergence reshaped the population distribution in the territory. Small-scale reclamation projects still took place in the old city core and they included the 35- hectare project for the expansion of the Kowloon-Canton Railway terminus at Hung Hom, the 20 hectares of land reclaimed in Central for the Hong Kong Island terminus of the Airport Express Line, and the development at Aldrich Bay on Hong Kong Island

East. The emergence of modern-day Hong Kong is largely attributed to man-made

factors. When one reviews today's core commercial areas and the boundaries of yesteryear's

City of Victoria, one will notice that almost all the land in the urban districts was

produced by reclamation. The development history of the city of Hong Kong resembles a journal that details the dates and scale of reclamation works.

Since the mid-nineteenth century, reclamation has been viewed as a panacea for resolving the perennial problem of insufficient land resources, especially the acute shortage of land in the core areas. The most obvious benefit of reclamation is that the

new land can be tailor-made to meet user requirements. Thus, the reclamation works

in the past were either undertaken in the urban centre where there was desperate need for additional space or at its peripheral districts. This extra land supply bolstered the development of commerce and industry, improved community facilities and transportation networks, and augmented public spaces. To the authorities, reclamation only involved technical considerations such as the soil characteristics of the seabed, the upgrading of public transport facilities, with minimum compensations paid on land resumptions. The land produced was well-located and generated enormous government revenue from its sales. In the early twentieth-century, reclamation was even regarded as a good solution to the problem of ship mooring in the harbour.

Although reclamation has been the backbone for the territory's growth, there are rising concerns over its impact on the ecological environment. The Hong Kong government publication The Shape of Things to Come: An Overview of the Role of Harbour Reclamations in the Future Development of Hong Kong310 lists its shortcomings. For instance, the upsetting of hydrological conditions results in the deterioration of water quality. The excavation or filling operations of sandfill may adversely affect

the environment. The deployment of heavy vehicles to transport fill material could cause traffic chaos at reclamation sites. The expansion of coastal land necessitates the reprovisioning of facilities along the shorelines and compensation to the owners of affected Marine lots. Port infrastructure such as submarine pipelines and cables, sewerage systems, etc., has to be reinstalled. For reclamation projects undertaken in the twenty-first century, the government has to examine critically the negative ecological impact and social cost and not be preoccupied with the economic and social benefits.

The establishment and development of a city rely on the availability of land,

but the social and historical factors must also be considered in determining the pace and priority of development. From the mid-nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries, the majority of reclamation works were concentrated on the City of Victoria, located on the northern part of Hong Kong Island, and the eastern and western shores of the Kowloon Peninsula. The signing of the Convention on the Extension of Hong Kong Territory at the end of the nineteenth century purportedly expanded the territorial boundaries, but the stage of development in the New Territories was markedly inferior to that achieved in the urban districts even twenty years after the Second World War. The

New Territories continued its role as the city's supply base for foodstuffs. The influx of Chinese immigrants after the Republican Revolution in 1911 did not alter the government's

commitment to maintain the City of Victoria as the nucleus of the territory.

It was not until the early 1980s that a multi-nucleus city design came to the fore. In 1984, the Chinese and British governments agreed on Hong Kong's reversion of sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997. This allowed the government to change the

Challenges for an Evolving City

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251

long-held practice of using Boundary Street to distinguish between sovereignty and administrative authority. The new towns blossomed after the mid-1980s, following

the construction of large-scale transport networks and modern community facilities.

These new towns differed from the satellite towns that were developed in the early post-war years. The satellite towns were built with the principal functions of providing accommodation for a rapidly escalating population and abundant supplies of cheap labour for industry. Community facilities and transport links to other parts of the territory were rather primitive. As a result, these satellite towns failed to evolve into new nuclei of the territory before the 1980s. It was only the establishment of comprehensively developed new towns in the 1980s that thoroughly transformed the New Territories.

Nowadays, the issues of environmental and urban landscape protection must be addressed when contemplating land formation. Moreover, the development of a modern city requires grappling with the treatment of municipal waste and the inert construction and demolition material. When a city ceases reclamation and abolishes its public filling areas, alternative disposal methods must be found for the recyclable waste material and other types of waste generated. In 2002, over 15.8 million tonnes of inert construction and demolition material was sent to public filling areas. This figure grew to 19.6 million tonnes a year later. Eventually, the existing public filling facilities will run out of capacity. The administration is considering the possibility of discharging the inert material into the East Lamma Channel, but this entails prior environmental impact assessments. On 31 March 2004, the Hong Kong government and the State Oceanic Administration signed a Co-operation Agreement on Cross-boundary Marine Dumping. Under the agreement, the Hong Kong government can apply for the export of dredged material and inert construction and demolition material to the Pearl River Delta for use in reclamation projects. However, the proposals must comply with the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other

Matter, the London Convention 1972 and the 1996 Protocol, as well as all the relevant

regulations and standards of both the mainland and Hong Kong. The co-operation agreement can help alleviate pressure on Hong Kong's marine dumping grounds and fill banks, as well as reducing land development requirements in Guangdong. This will be beneficial to sustainable development in both Hong Kong and Guangdong province3.

In the twentieth-first century, Hong Kong has broken free of the bondage of

the unequal treaties signed in the nineteenth century. The nucleus of the territory has expanded continuously, with the hub of Victoria Harbour moving westwards in the wake of the opening of Chek Lap Kok Airport and the completion of the Northwest New Territories transport networks. The future development of Hong Kong will have to tie in closely with the development strategy of the Pearl River Delta as well as the nation's overall plan. The construction of port infrastructure is no longer concerned with mere technical practicality; it is also valued for its aesthetic and eco-friendly functions. This allows Hong Kong to assume its rightful place as one of the major metropolises in the world.

Conclusion

This research into the 160-year history of port and land development analyses the transformation

of Hong Kong from a remote fishing village into an international metropolis. It observes the process as well as the characteristics from the standpoint of urban development. Over that period, the city achieved sustained development with its limited economic and human resources, despite

the countless challenges posed by the external environment as well as internal shocks induced

by structural changes. It is worth understanding the experiences that Hong Kong has gone through when pondering the direction of its future development.

A dearth of land resources and a soaring population were two key impediments to the growth of a city. According to government statistics, Hong Kong had a population of just 7,450 in 1841; the figure grew to 6.81 million by 2001. This represents a 914-fold increase and equates to an average compounded growth rate of 4.35 per cent over the 160-year period. In 1842, Hong

Kong Island had a land area of just 75 square kilometres. In 2003, the territory of the Hong

Kong Special Administrative Region encompassed Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula,

the New Territories and over 230 outlying islands. Together with the substantial land created by reclamation, the total area of Hong Kong expanded to 1,102 square kilometres - an almost 15-

fold increase. Notwithstanding such dramatic increase in absolute terms, land resources were still far outpaced by the growth in population. As a result, the building up of the city and the distribution of its population largely centred on districts developed by the authorities. That was

the case in the mid-nineteenth century and such phenomenon still exists in the twenty-first century. The pace of land development was also closely linked with the external economic and political environment and the vicissitudes of the territory. As such, the expansion of its city nucleus.

accurately portrayed the urbanisation of modern Hong Kong.

In the mid-nineteenth century, the colonial government sought to develop Hong Kong into a Victorian-styled town. Located in the city nucleus were the principal government agencies that included the law court, police station, military barracks, arsenal, gaol, post office and the Harbour Master's Office. Besides such government facilities, there were also church to conduct religious activity; dockyards, piers and wharves to support commercial and trading activity; hospital, school, market and cemetery to provide community and social services; as well as

recreational and leisure grounds such as a racecourse, a cricket club and a garden. In the early

days, the development of the Chinese community depended largely on the initiatives of local

organisations. A Chinese-populated community was established at Upper Bazaar (the area to the

west of present-day Aberdeen Street and Hollywood Road north, around Kau U Fong and Gough Street) and Lower Plaza (the area around present-day Jervois Street and Bonham Strand). The community was home to many Chinese shops and businesses that were engaged in trade and

Challenges for an Evolving City

252

Conclusion

Challenges for an Evolving City

254

commerce. In 1844, Upper Bazaar was redeveloped into a commercial area for the foreign business community. The original inhabitants of Upper Plaza were forced out and relocated to a site. around Tai Ping Shan Street. Gradually, Sheung Wan evolved into a locality populated predominantly by Chinese. Reconstruction work was undertaken in the Chinese area after a blaze ravaged the Bonham Strand Praya, Sheung Wan, at the end of 1851. The project also involved the expansion of the trading zone in the Chinese community and resulted in the first reclamation performed in Hong Kong. Modern techniques were employed to level mountains and reclaim land from the sea. The first reclamation overcame the geographical handicaps and established the blueprint for future land development. The expanded waterfront along Bonham Strand attracted many Chinese commercial organisations such as Nam Pak hongs (south-north trading companies), Qianye gonghui (money-changer guild), jinshanzhuang (trading companies) and yinhao (Chinese native banks) to set up operations in Hong Kong. This was in stark contrast with the westernised Central, a district that was occupied by expatriate merchant houses, western-styled warehouses and piers. Such development characteristics demonstrated the uniqueness of the City of Victoria in the nineteenth century.

Flatland was a rarity along the northern shore of Hong Kong Island. As early as the 1860s, the government proposed to expand Central through reclamation in the face of a rising population. Nevertheless, efforts to develop Central and Wan Chai were stymied until 1889, when the authorities resolved the disputes with the military and the private enterprises in respect of property rights for the coastal lots. During the years 1889-1903, the administration carried out reclamation along the shoreline for a stretch of two miles between the gas works in Western District and Murray Pier in Central. This was known as the Praya Reclamation Scheme and the projects created about 59 acres of land. Another major reclamation plan, the Praya East Reclamation Scheme, was implemented between 1921 and 1931 from Central and Wan Chai; it yield 86 acres of new land. These two large-scale reclamation schemes established the mechanisms for future reclamations. These covered the aspects of planning, progress monitoring, contracting framework and the application of techniques. The complicated rights and obligations of the government versus those of the private owners over issues such as the undertaking of construction works, the ownership of reclaimed land, the determination of land values and government rent, and the future use of the land reclaimed, were able to be resolved. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the City of Victoria gradually expanded to Western District, then Wan Chai and Causeway Bay. The growth of Hong Kong Island along the coastline in a west-east direction was able to balance the needs of society against the political and economic development considerations. The construction of port infrastructure, piers and seawalls, and repairs carried out in the wake

of typhoons and rainstorms only furnished trade with the bare minimum of support. Most of the

larger piers were erected by the private sector; public piers were few in number and were constructed

without an overall plan. On the whole, urbanisation proceeded at a slow pace along the northern coastline of Hong Kong Island during the latter half of the nineteenth century.

In 1860, the Kowloon Peninsula was incorporated into the territory of Hong Kong. Constrained by military considerations and insufficient financial means, the government was unable to carry out any sizable land development projects at the time. Fragmentary reclamation works were largely undertaken by the private sector along the western shore of the peninsula. Urbanisation

of the Kowloon Peninsula took place almost half a century later than that of Hong Kong Island.

In the first half of the twentieth century, the population in Hong Kong was growing at faster rate than in the second half of the nineteenth century. New immigrants entering Hong Kong were no longer predominantly single males; many of them were nuclear household members from the upper-middle class. Hong Kong's competitiveness as a trade hub for the Asia Pacific region was enhanced by emigrants from South China and the South East Asia region. To cement Hong Kong's leading position in Asia Pacific and maintain close relationship with China, the government had to develop its transport networks aggressively. Construction of the Kowloon-Canton Railway began in the early twentieth century and the rail line commenced operation in October 1910. The permanent Kowloon railway terminus at Tsim Sha Tsui was approved in 1912 and the terminal building was commissioned in 1916. The development of Kai Tak Airport began in earnest in the mid-1920s and the airport started its commercial operation in the mid-1930s. The construction

and expansion of transport networks represented the government's strategy to maximise Hong Kong's economic development potential following the massive inflows of population and capital. Such infrastructural projects involved detailed forward planning and vast capital sums; they were not impromptu measures. This demonstrates that the administration began to formulate

longer-term development blueprints for the territory in the early twentieth century.

By the first half of the twentieth century, the land development projects undertaken were of a considerable scale. Not only did the authorities have to plan with the risks of storm surges and typhoon attacks in mind, they also had to integrate the new and existing support facilities in the reclaimed area. The issues to be tackled included: water supplies, road link-ups, transport arrangements, and the connection of new and old sewers. In a densely populated district, at times it was more difficult to carry out the community co-ordination work than the

engineering works. The smooth expansion of the city nucleus owed much of its success to the systematic planning of reclamation projects. In the early years after the Second World War, land development activity was concentrated in New Kowloon, and the satellite towns of Tsuen Wan,

255

Conclusion

Castle Peak (now Tsuen Wan) and Sha Tin in the New Territories. The objective was to boost the burgeoning industries and enhance their growth potential. Integrated urban planning which struck an appropriate balance between the circumstances of the various districts and other factors

such as population growth and economic development needs was not implemented until the end of the 1970s. After the mid-1970s, the development of districts in the New Territories favoured

a balanced approach, with emphasis on support facilities. The emergence of new towns enabled the expansion of the city nucleus from the northern coast of Hong Kong Island and the southern end of the Kowloon Peninsula to the New Territories. This allowed a more even distribution of

population throughout the territory of Hong Kong. To support rapid global economic growth and the opening-up of China's economy, the Hong Kong government has placed much emphasis on the building of new districts since the 1980s. In addition, the administration undertook

comprehensive planning for the overall development of the urban regions. New infrastructure projects such as the Airport Core Programme, the redevelopment and expansion of West Kowloon, and the new tourism facilities exemplified by Hong Kong Disneyland, are the key impetus behind Hong Kong's ascendance as a global metropolis in the twenty-first century.

By the early twentieth century, waters off the northern coast of Hong Kong Island were reduced to depths of about 20 feet due to silting in the Pearl River Delta. At such depths, it was not possible to accommodate ocean-going vessels with displacements of 9,000 tons and draughts of up to 10 metres (33 feet). The major fairways of Victoria Harbour required regular dredging and maintenance. Continuous investments of human resources are indispensable for upholding the reputation of Victoria Harbour as a deepwater port, capable of servicing the largest vessels; and to cater for the booming maritime trade. Port infrastructure including large container terminals, anchorages, typhoon shelters and cargo working areas have played a vital part in making Hong Kong the world's busiest container port since 1988. In 2003, a total of 298 piers were built, managed and maintained by the government. They were spread across all the urban regions and some of the outlying areas.

With a paucity of natural resources, Hong Kong faced extreme difficulties in accommodating a soaring population with such limited land space. To economise on resources, the creation of land was often undertaken by way of reclamation in the densely populated districts. Before the 1990s, such method of land generation was warmly embraced by the community; this was even deemed a sound strategy to alleviate population pressure in the overcrowded urban regions. The supply of new land has enabled the construction of new roads, housing developments, and leisure and community facilities. These added infrastructure and amenities have improved the quality

of life in the local communities and are conducive to the development of commercial activity. The reclaimed land has also proved to be a boon to government coffers and has laid a solid base for the development of the territory. The adoption of reclamation made possible the continued expansion of urban areas. Up until the first half of the twentieth century, reclamation generated about 81 hectares (200 acres) of land. According to Lands Department's estimates, the area of land reclaimed grew by approximately 4,000 acres (9,884 acres) during the post-war period up to the early 1980s. By 1983, land areas classified as urban were three times larger than in 1959. Figures from the annual yearbooks reveal that Hong Kong increased its land space by about 2,000 hectares (4,942 acres) between 1980 and 1997. In all, reclamation accounts for approximately 6,000 hectares (14,826 acres) of land, equivalent to 5.4% of Hong Kong's total land area.

Land development and population growth are elements that interact and influence one another. To cater for population growth, development projects sprouted up one after another around the periphery of urban districts. Such phenomenon accounted for the strip-like pattern of development in the City of Victoria and the emergence of the Kowloon Peninsula, as well as

the concentration of cultural and community activities and landmark structures along the shores

on both sides of Victoria Harbour. Since the mid-nineteenth century, these shores of Hong Kong

Island and the Kowloon Peninsula have become instantly recognisable symbols of Hong Kong and moulded Hong Kong's unique culture. With a slowing population growth rate and much improved new town developments in the New Territories, the severity of urban land shortage was lessened. With improving living standards and rising educational levels, the expectations of the citizens towards urbanisation go beyond economic benefits. Other factors such as the protection of the ecology systems and the conservation of natural resources are now accorded high priority. Hence, reclamations proposed by the administration in recent years have been mired in controversy as the community is evaluating these projects with the environment in mind. In view of the impact reclamation has had on Hong Kong's ecological environment, the community is understandably worried about that further reclamations could cause irreparable damage to the beautiful Victoria Harbour, a natural heritage of Hong Kong.

The historical review of land development and port expansion in Hong Kong since the mid-nineteenth century undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the rationale behind reclamation and the characteristics of the major reclamation projects. This could perhaps assist us to make an informed evaluation of the benefits and drawbacks of infrastructural works on the development of Hong Kong, and lay a firmer theoretical foundation for the determination of the future direction of such activity.

Challenges for an Evolving City

256

257

Notes

Endacott, G. B., A History of Hong Kong, London, Oxford University Press, 1964; Endacott, G. B., Gov- ernment and People in Hong Kong, 1841-1962: A Constitutional History, Westport, Conn. Green Press, 1982; Eitel, Ernest John, Europe in China: The History of Hong Kong from the Beginning to the Year of 1882, Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 1983, reprint; Sayer, Geoffrey Robley, Hong Kong 1841- 1862: Birth, Adolescence and Coming of Age, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, 1980, reprint. The above English-language writings placed the research emphasis on the development of the colonial government. They considered Hong Kong as a barren land and that Chinese culture was substandard; few mentions were made of the Chinese community. Such research approach dominated Hong Kong history study for over one hundred years.

Yu Shengwu and Liu Cunkuan, Shijiu shiji de Xianggang (Hong Kong in the Nineteenth Century), Hong Kong, Unicorn Books Limited, 1994; Yu Shengwu and Liu Cunkuan, Ershi shiji de Xianggang (Hong Kong in the Twentieth Century), Hong Kong, Unicorn Books Limited, 1995.

Gong Yingyan, Yapian de chuanbo yu duihua yapian maoyi (The Spread of Opium and Opium Trade in China), Beijing, Dongfang chubanshe, 1999.

Chen Duo and Cai Chimeng, Xianggang huigui congshu: Xianggang de jingji (Hong Kong's Return Collection: Hong Kong Economy), Beijing, Xinhua chubanshe, 1996; Feng Bangyan, Xianggang yingzi caituan: 1841-1996 (Hong Kong's British Conglomerates: 1841-1996), Hong Kong, Joint Publishing (HK) Co Ltd, 1996; Feng Bangyan, Xianggang huazi caituan: 1841-1997 (Hong Kong's Chinese Conglomerates: 1841-1997), Hong Kong, Joint Publishing (HK) Co Ltd, 1997.

Plate 2-1 (1845), The 4-inch Collinson Map, Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, Hong Kong, Government Information Services, 1992, p. 128.

Ho, Pui-yin, Weathering the Storm: Hong Kong Observatory and Social Development, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, 2003, p. 50.

Ho, Pui Yin, Water for a Barren Rock: 150 Years of Water Supply in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, The Commer- cial Press (HK) Ltd, 2001, p. 6.

Sayer, Geoffrey Robley, Hong Kong: 1841-1862, Birth, Adolescence and Coming of Age, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University, 1980, reprint, pp. 23-24; Taylor, E. S., Hong Kong as a Factor in British Relations With China, 1834-1860, London, 1967, p. 30.

Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, p. 128.

Chiu, T. N., The Port of Hong Kong: A Survey of Its Development, p. 5.

Liu Guangjing, Jingshi sixiang yu xinxing qiye (Pragmatism and New Enterprises), Taibei, Lianjing chubanshe, 1990, pp. 556-570.

"Vessels Detained in British Ports or Captured at Sea by His Majesty's Armed Forces", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong Government, 1914, No 510, pp. 542-547.

Duncan, John, "Report on the Commercial Development of the Port of Hong Kong", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong Government, 1924, No 14/1924, p. 125.

"Nautical Chart of Ma Wan and Approaches", Hydrographic Office, Marine Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 1999, 2001, Chart No HK1502.

"Nautical Chart of Harbour: Eastern Part", Hydrographic Office, Marine Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 1999, 2000, Chart No HK0801.

"Nautical Chart of South Eastern Approaches", Hydrographic Office, Marine Department, The Govern- ment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 2000, Chart No HK2502.

"Nautical Chart of Harbour: Central Part", Hydrographic Office, Marine Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 1997, 2000, Chart No HK0802.

Chinese Repository, Vol X, No 5, The Hong Kong Gazette, May 1841, p. 289.

Xianggang Shangye huibao ed., Xianggang Jianzaoye bainianshi (One Hundred Years of Building Con- struction in Hong Kong), Hong Kong, 1958, p. 40.

CO 129/4, "Despatch From Colonial Land and Emigration Office", 9 December 1843, pp. 216-220.

Historical and Statistical Abstract of the Colony of Hong Kong 1841-1930, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1932, p. 1.

"1842 Pottinger's Map", Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, pp. 160-161.

Bard, Solomon Matthews, Traders of Hong Kong: Some Foreign Merchant Houses, 1841-1899, Hong

Kong, Urban Council, 1993, pp. 43-44.

Report from the Hong Kong Land Commission of 1886-1887 on the History of the Sale, Tenure and Occu- pation of the Crown Lands of the Colony, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1887, pp. X-xi.

Taylor, D. A., The Port of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Book Marketing Ltd, 1991, p. 7.

"1842 Pottinger's Map", Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, pp. 160-161.

Chen Gaohua and Wu Tai, Song Yuan shiqi de haiwai maoyi (Foreign Trade During the Song and Yuan Dynasties), Tianjin, Renmin chubanshe, 1981, p. 99.

CO 129/2, “Mr Gordon, the Land Officer's Report on the Northern Face of Hong Kong”, 6 July 1843, pp.

152-176.

Huang Qishen and Pang Xinping, Ming Qing Guangdong shangren (Guangdong Merchants in the Ming and Qing Dynasties), Guangzhou, Guangdong jingji chubanshe, 2001, p. 30.

CO 129/5, "Detailed Account Disbursements of the Land Department From June 1841 to January 1844", 10 February 1844.

Chiu, T. N., The Port of Hong Kong: A Survey of Its Development, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, 1973, pp. 13-17.

Morse, Hosea Ballou, The Chronicles of the East India Company, Trading to China, 1635-1834, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1926-1929, Vol 2, p. 68.

Greenberg, Michael, British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800-1842, Cambridge University Press, 1951, p. 206.

CO 133/3, "Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canals, Bridges, Buildings, &c., Not of a Military Nature, Which Have Been Undertaken During the Year", Hong Kong Blue Book, H 2, Public Works, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1844-1882.

"1842 Pottinger's Map", Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, pp. 160-161.

CO 129/75, "Memorandum From B. J. Sulivan", 16 April 1859, pp. 309-316.

The number of outlying islands in Hong Kong has been reduced due to reclamation works. Recent ex- amples of islands being linked up to the mainland include Chek Lap Kok Island and Stonecutters Island.

The total land area of Hong Kong has increased as a result of reclamation; hence different eras show slightly different figures. According to page 1 of Land Utilization in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1966, Hong Kong only had an area of 1,032 square kilometres. This is even smaller than the figure of 1,060 square kilometres provided by the 1899 colonial government record.

CO 129/163, "Governor to Earl of Kimberley, Principal Secretary of State", 1 April 1873, pp. 16-22.

CO 129/162, “Mr Wade to Sir Arthur Kennedy", 21 February 1873.

Ordinance No 17 of 1873, "To Establish Lighthouses, Buoys, or Beacons Within the Colony”, The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 13 December 1873, pp. 601-603.

CO 129/165, “Lights Required for the Hong Kong Government to Be Ordered Through the Crown Agents With Estimated Cost", 12 November 1973.

Challenges for an Evolving City

CO 882/5, Lockhart, Stewart, “On the Extension of the Colony of Hong Kong", 8 October 1899, p.

36.

So, Chak-lam, "Dimao (Landforms)”, Xianggang dili (A Geography of Hong Kong), Guangzhou, Guangdong keji chubanshe, 1985, pp. 18-37.

Ha, Louis and Waters, Dan, "Hong Kong's Lighthouses and the Men Who Manned Them", Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, 2001, Vol 41, pp. 284-285.

Ha, Louis and Waters, Dan, "Hong Kong's Lighthouses and the Men Who Manned Them", p. 287.

FO 881/75A, pp. 107-109, 135-138.

Notice: "Cape Collinson Harbour Light", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 12 February 1876, p. 87.

Gray, D. M., "Tropical Cyclones”, The Junk, June 1989, pp. 27-31.

Notice: "Cape d'Aguilar Light", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 20 March 1875, p. 114.

258

259

The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 12 July 1875, p. 242.

The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 27 March, 1875, p. 121; Notice: "Cape Collinson Harbour Light", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 12 February 1876, p. 87.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for 1892”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1893, No 9/93, p. 115.

CO 129/2, “Gordon to Pottinger", 19 December 1843, p. 445.

CO 129/2, “Davis to Stanley", 26 July 1844, p. 435.

CO 129/5, "Woosnam to Gordon", 10 January 1844, p. 69.

The Friend of China, 10 August 1844.

CO 129/6, "Caine, Gutzlaff and Gordon to Bruce”, 21 May 1844, p. 444.

CO 129/6, "Caine, Gutzlaff and Gordon to Pottinger", 21 May 1844, p. 440.

"1842 Pottinger's Map", Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, pp. 160-161.

Challenges for an Evolving City

Talbot, Henry D., "An Outline of the Urban Development of Hong Kong Island During the Nineteenth Century", Dwyer, D. J. ed., The Changing Face of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asia Society, 1971, p. 57.

122

"Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canal, Bridges, Buildings, &c., Not of a Military Nature", Hong Kong Blue Book, H 2, 1864-1866, using the 1863 exchange rate of £1 = HK$4.8.

"Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canal, Bridges, Buildings, &c.", Hong Kong Blue Book, 1875, p. 36.

"Return of the Population and of the Marriages, Births and Deaths", Hong Kong Blue Book, 1858.

Ho, Pui-yin, The Administrative History of the Hong Kong Government Agencies, 1841-2002, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, 2004, pp. 135-138.

Price, J. M., “Surveyor General's Report, 18 July 1887: Praya Reclamation Scheme", Hong Kong Ses- sional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1888, p. 8.

888

"Hong Kong Praya Reclamation Scheme, Mr Chater to Acting Colonial Secretary, 13 July 1887”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1888, pp. 1-2.

"Proposed Reclamation Scheme, Enclosure from Hong Kong and China Gas Co Ltd to C. P. Chater, 9 September 1887", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1888, pp. 16-18.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1903", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1904, No 18/1904, p. 193.

"Government Notification No 168", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 8 May 1886, p. 390; “Government Notification No 333", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 28 August 1886, p. 809.

"Government Notification No 115", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 26

March 1887.

Notes

CO 129/38, "Special Report, by the Police Department of Hong Kong”, 29 December 1851.

The Friend of China and Hong Kong Gazette, 3 January 1852, p. 2.

980

CO 129/38, No 89, “Special Report from Police Department to Major Caine”, 29 December 1851, pp. 120- 127; The Friend of China and Hong Kong Gazette, 31 December, 1851,

pp. 426-427.

The Friend of China and Hong Kong Gazette, 3 January 1853, pp. 2-3.

The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 23 April 1887, Vol XXXIII, No 18.

The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 16 April 1887, Vol XXXIII, No 17.

Hong Kong Daily Press, 1 March 1901.

"Government Notification No 50”, Supplement to the Hong Kong Government Gazette, Vol 1, No 43, 16 April 1856, p. 1.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1921", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1922, Appendix Q, Q 65.

CO 129/61, “Emigration Office to Treasury", 30 July 1856.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1921", Q 66.

"Report of the Bowring Praya Commission", Supplement to the Hong Kong Gazette, Vol 1, No 43, 22 April 1856, p. 2.

"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1932, No 1/1931, p. 11.

CO 129/76, “Proposed Minute of Protest Against 'The Bowring Praya””, 4 February 1859; Memorandum, 5 February 1859.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1929”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1930, Appendix Q, Q 74.

2 2 2

CO 129/116, “Colonial Secretary to Earl of Carnarvon, Principal Secretary of State", 10 December 1866.

CO 129/116, “Royal Engineers Office to the Assistant Military Secretary", 10 December 1866.

"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", p. 5.

100

The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 28 July 1866, p. 291.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1918", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1919, Appendix Q, Q 90.

CO 129/77, “Office of Surveyor General Estimate of the Expense Necessary to Be Incurred for the Streets in Suburbs, East and West”, 1 March 1860, pp. 358-363.

101

"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", pp. 1-5.

102

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1921", Q 65-67.

CO 129/129, “Office of Surveyor General Estimate of the Expense Necessary to Be Incurred for Strand: Government Share of 10 March 1868”.

103

"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", p. 10.

104

"Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canals, Bridges, &c., Not of a Military Nature”, Hong Kong Blue Book, H 2, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1868-1870.

Chen Jinghuai, "Lun Xianggang chaoshang jingji fazhan de lishi guocheng (Discussions on the Economic Development History of Hong Kong Chaozhou Merchants)”, Chaozhouxue guoji yantaohui lunwenji (Proceedings of International Conference on Chaozhou Studies), Guangzhou, Jinan University, 1994, Vol 2, p. 609; Hayes, James, "The Nam Pak Hong Commercial Association of Hong Kong", Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1979, Vol 19, 216.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1931”, Hong Kong Administration Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1932, Appendix Q, Q 62.

105

"Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canals, Bridges, &c., Not a Military Nature", Hong Kong Blue Book, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1883, F 8-9; 1884, F 8-9; “Legislative Council No 1", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 1 March 1884, p. 101.

106

CO 129/210, "Reclamation of Causeway Bay with Report and Plan", 28 June 1883.

107

CO 129/210, "The Swamp at Yaumati", 28 June 1883.

Chen Huixun, Xianggang zaji (Hong Kong Miscellanies), Hong Kong, Zhonghua yinwu zongju, 1894, p. 32.

CO 129/129, "Proposed Extension of Praya Bonham Strand: Supplementary Report and Estimate No 23 of 1868", 24 March 1868.

108

CO 129/377 "Memorandum in Reply to Messrs Deacon, Looker & Deacon's Letter of 18 April 1911 to the Secretary of State", p. 303.

109

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1899", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1900, No 14/1900, p. 232.

CO 129/170, “Plan of Victoria", 10 March - 6 May 1875, p. 535.

110

CO 129/129, "Proposed Extension of Praya Bonham Strand: Supplementary Report and Estimate No 23 of 1868", 24 March 1868.

"Seawall and Godowns at Kowloon", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 11 February 1882, p. 78.

260

261

Challenges for an Evolving City

111

112

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1900", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1901, No 16/1901, p. 328; “Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1904”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1905, No 14/1905, p. 218.

CO 129/317, "Kowloon Marine Lot 33", 11 June 1903; CO 129/377, “Kowloon Marine Lots 29, 30 & 31", 18 April 1911.

113

Howard, Ebenezer, Garden Cities of Tomorrow, London, Faber and Faber Ltd, 1965, reprint, p. 24.

114

CO 129/520/12, "Development Kowloon Tong Estate", 11 December 1929-1 August 1930.

115

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1922”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1923, Appendix Q, Q 200.

116

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1929”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Appendix Q, Q 97.

117

118

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1926", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1927, Appendix Q, Q 105.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1924", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1925, Appendix Q, Q141; “Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1925”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1926, Appendix Q, Q 127.

119

CO 129/311, “Harbour Master's Report on Probable Necessity of Dredging", Enclosure No 3 to Despatch No 265 of 20 June 1902, pp. 430-433.

120 "Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1908”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong

Kong Government, 1909, Appendix P, P 27.

121

"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", p. 9.

122 Wah Kiu Yat Po, 19 June 1960, 25 August 1968.

123 Huazi ribao (Huazi Daily), 2 November 1906.

124 Huazi ribao (Huazi Daily), 2 November 1906.

142

143

144

145

146

147

"Kowloon-Canton Railway Annual Report for 1909”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1910, Appendix Q, Q 1.

Phillips, Robert J., Kowloon-Canton Railway (British Section), p. 51.

"Kowloon-Canton Railway Annual Report for 1910”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1911, Appendix R, R 1-3.

Liu Shuyong and Siu Kwok-kin ed., Xianggang lishi tushuo (A Pictorial History of Hong Kong), Unicorn Books Ltd, 1998; Chen Xin and Guo Zhikun ed., Xianggang quan jilu (Illustrated Chronicle of Hong Kong), Hong Kong, Chung Hwa Book Co, 1997; Liang Tao, Jiulong jiedao mingming kaoyuan (Origins of Kowloon Street Names), Hong Kong, Urban Council, 1993, p. 734; Lu Yan, Xianggang zhanggu (Anecdotes of Hong Kong), Hong Kong, Wide Angle Press, 1984, Vol 2.

CO 129/508/8, "Kai Tak Aerodrome”, 2 November 1928.

Ko, Tim-keung and Tong, Cheuk-man, Xianggang rizhan shiqi, (Hong Kong During Japanese Occupation: December 1941-August 1945), Hong Kong, Joint Publishing (HK) Co Ltd, 1995, p. 58.

Gongshang ribao (Industrial and Commercial Daily), 10 December 1941.

Xie Yongguang, Sannian ling bageyue de kunan (Three Years and Eight Months of Suffering), Hong Kong, Ming Pao Press, 1994, p. 6.

Kwun, Lai-hung, Rizhan shiqi de Xianggang (Hong Kong During Japanese Occupation), Hong Kong, Joint Publishing (HK) Co Ltd, 1993, p. 67.

148

149

150

151

Xie Yongguang, Sannian ling bageyue de kunan, p. 88.

152

Xie Yongguang, Sannian ling bageyue de kunan, pp. 35, 52.

153

Xie Yongguang, Sannian ling bageyue de kunan, p. 156.

154

Announcements of the Governor's Office of the Captured Territory of Hong Kong, Xiangduling teji (Special Issue of Hong Kong Governor's Edicts), Yazhou shangbao, Showa 18 (1943), No 34 administrative region - regulation on the abolition of foreign trading junks.

125

126

Ho, Pui-yin, Weathering the Storm: Hong Kong Observatory and Social Development, p. 80.

Wah Kiu Yat Po, 19 June 1960.

155

Honkon senryochi soutokubu houdoubu (Governor's Office of the Captured Territory of Hong Kong Infor- mation Department), Shin Honkon no kensetsu (Constructions in New Hong Kong), Hong Kong, Showa 18 (1943), p. 10.

127

128

"Correspondence Regarding the Typhoon Shelter at Mongkoktsui and the Proposed Temporary Increase in Light Dues", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1908, No 24/1908, pp. 506-507.

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1915", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1916, Appendix Q, Q 86-88.

156

Xie Yongguang, Sannian ling bageyue de kunan, Hong Kong, Ming Pao Press, 1994, p. 88.

157

158

129

CO 129/337, “Memo in Reply to Messrs Deacon, Looker & Deacon's Letter", 18 April 1911.

130

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1916”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1917, Appendix Q, Q 74.

Kwun, Lai-hung, Rizhan shiqi de Xianggang, Hong Kong, Joint Publishing (HK) Co Ltd, 1993, p. 107.

Ko, Tim-keung, Erci dazhan yu qide jichang (Second World War and Kai Tak Airport), Chiu Yu-lok and Chung, Po-yin ed., Jiulongcheng (Kowloon City), Hong Kong, Joint Publishing (HK) Co Ltd, 2001, pp. 185-203.

Wah Kiu Yat Po, 3 September 1945.

Notes

131

Sing Tao Daily, 8 August 1949.

132

The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 11 May 1901, pp. 959, 961.

133

The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 30 October 1897, p. 922.

134

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1900", p. 337.

159

160

Ho, Pui-yin, The Administrative History of the Hong Kong Government Agencies, 1841-2002, p. 116.

161

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1951-52, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1952, p. 26.

162

Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1952-53, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1953, p. 27.

135

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1921", Q 59-60; "Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1924", Q 89.

163

136

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1930", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1931, Appendix Q, Q 121-122; “Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1931", Q 52-53.

164

137

"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1935", Hong Kong Administration Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1936, Appendix Q, Q 58-59.

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1954-55, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1955, p. 37; Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1958-1959, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1959, p. 38.

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1964-65, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1965, p. 3; Ho, Pui-yin, The Administrative History of the Hong Kong Government Agencies, 1841-2002, p. 135.

165

138

139

Phillips, Robert J., Kowloon-Canton Railway (British Section), Hong Kong, Urban Council, 1990, pp. 15-23.

Phillips, Robert J., Kowloon-Canton Railway (British Section), pp. 27-28.

"Report of the Housing Commission 1935”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1938, No 12/1938, p. 259.

166

Memorandum by W. H. Owen, "Report of the Housing Commission 1935”, pp. 282-283.

140

Phillips, Robert J., Kowloon-Canton Railway (British Section), p. 31.

167

141

CO 129/339, "Reclamation for Railway Terminus, Kowloon", 21 March 1907.

168

Abercrombie, Patrick, Hong Kong Preliminary Planning Report, Hong Kong Government, 1948, p. 1.

"Memorandum of 25 August 1950 from the Financial Secretary to the Deputy Colonial Secretary", BLI/ 5281/50, Public Records Office (PRO), Hong Kong.

262

263

169

170

Abercrombie, Patrick, Hong Kong Preliminary Planning Report, p. 5.

Plan to Accompany Sir Patrick Abercrombie's Report on Hong Kong Density of Population, Hong Kong Government, 1948.

197

Hayes, James, Tsuen Wan: Growth of a 'New Town' and Its People, pp. 90-91.

198

Tsuen Wan District Board, Quanwan erbainian: Lishi wenhua jinxi (Two Hundred Years of Tsuen Wan: History and Culture - Now and Then), p. 4.

171

Dwyer, D. J., "The Urbanization of the New Territories”, The Changing Face of Hong Kong.

199

172

"Memorandum of 24 December 1951 from the Acting Financial Secretary", BL 3/5282/51, PRO, Hong Kong.

Development Division, Public Works Department, Report on Development at Castle Peak, Hong Kong Government, November 1964, p. 12.

200

Development Division, Public Works Department, Report on Development at Castle Peak, p. 1.

173

Town Planning Office, "Planning Memorandum No 4 Ten Year Development Programme", January 1960, BL2/5282/61, PRO, Hong Kong.

201

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1972- 1973, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1973, p. 128.

174

202

Bristow, Roger, Hong Kong's New Towns, p. 174.

203

Notes

175

"Minutes by the Deputy Financial Secretary on 5 September 1960” at M4, BL 2/1/5281/47, Buildings and Lands Registry, Hong Kong.

Don, J. S., "Organisation for Development of the New Towns in Hong Kong", Symposium on Social Plan- ning in a New Town: Case Study - Shatin New Town, Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Hong Kong Council of Social Service, 1976, Appendix A, pp. 97-98.

176

Wah Kiu Yat Po, 18 April 1973.

177

178

179

Kwun Tong Kaifong Welfare Association, Kwun Tong Today, Hong Kong, 1969, pp. 4-14.

Accounts of Hong Kong and Annual Report of the Accountant General 1971-1972, Hong Kong, Govern- ment Printer, 1972.

King, Ambrose Y. C. and Leung, Davy H. K., "The Chinese Touch in Small Industrial Organizations", Occasional Paper No 46, Hong Kong, Social Research Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1975, p. 20.

180 Chan Ying-keung, "The Rise and Growth of Kwun Tong: A Study of Planned Urban Development", Occa- sional Paper No 26, Hong Kong, Social Research Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1973, p. 15.

Chan Ying-keung, "The Rise and Growth of Kwun Tong: A Study of Planned Urban Development", p. 12.

Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Population and Housing Census 1971 Main Report, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1972, p. 22.

181

182

Chan Ying-keung, "The Rise and Growth of Kwun Tong: A Study of Planned Urban Development", p.14.

Chan Ying-keung, "The Rise and Growth of Kwun Tong: A Study of Planned Urban Development", p. 14.

183

184

185

Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong 1981 Census Main Report, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1982, p. 22.

186

Hong Kong 1971, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1971.

187

188

Education Department 1975 unpublished data, cf. Chan Y. K., "The Development of New Towns in Hong Kong", Occasional Paper No 67, Hong Kong, Social Research Centre, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1977, p.

King, Ambrose Y. C. and Chan, Y. K., “A Theoretical and Operational Definition of Community: The Case of Kwun Tong", Occasional Paper No 1, Hong Kong, Social Research Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1972, pp. 20-21.

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

The 1868 map of Xinan district drawn by Father Simeone Volonteri was from Xinan xianzhi (Gazette of Xinan District), Jiaqing 24 (1819).

Wang Chongxi, Xinan xianzhi (Gazette of Xinan District), Jiaqing 24 (1819), Hong Kong, 1979 reprint. Such an assertion is apparently wrong. Many erroneous assertions have been made with regard to the origin of the name Sha Tin. I wrote an article, "Shatian gudao xun xiangmu (In Search of Scented Wood Along Sha Tin's Ancient Route)", which appeared in the June 2000 issue of Ming Pao Monthly. One of the para- graphs in the article incorrectly explained the origin of the name Sha Tin. This paragraph was inserted by the editor without my consent. I only discovered this unauthorised insertion after publication. Other ar- ticles that have made erroneous claims on the origin of the term Sha Tin include: Shatian lishi zhanlan tekan (Special Issue on the Sha Tin History Exhibition), Hong Kong, Shatian lishi zhanlan ji tekan chuban gongzuo xiaozu, 1987, p. 7; Shatian gujin fengmao bianji weiyuanhui, Shatian gujin fengmao, (Scenes of Sha Tin - Now and Then), Hong Kong, Sha Tin District Board, 1997, p. 8.

Sha Tin District Board Boundary map, Sha Tin District Board ed., Sha Tin District Board Report 1985-88, Hong Kong, Sha Tin District Board, 1988.

Survey and Mapping Office, Lands Department, Hong Kong Guide 2003, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 2003, p. 368 (back inner cover page).

Aijmer, Goran, Atomistic Society in Shatin, Sweden, Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, 1886; Hayes, James, The Rural Communities of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 1983.

"Report on the Census of the Colony for 1911”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1911, No 17, p. 26.

Barnett, K. M. A., Hong Kong Report on the 1961 Census, Hong Kong, Census and Statistics Department, 1962,

21.

The seaside paddy fields were bought by Mr Lau's father in the 1920s and were held in the name of Ms Poon, his mother.

Ho, Pui-yin, “Emergence and Decline of Local Economic Power: Case Study of the Sha Tin Chamber of Commerce", The Third International Conference of Business History, Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Centre of Asian Studies of The University of Hong Kong, July 2000, attached map: Street and shop map of Sha Tin Market.

Development Division, Public Works Department, Report on Development at Sha Tin, Hong Kong Government, January 1965, p. 3.

Planning Division, Station and District Outline Development Plan: Explanatory Statement to Accompany Plan No LST 17, Hong Kong, Crown Lands and Surveys Office, 1961, p. 1.

Challenges for an Evolving City

189

King, Ambrose Y. C. and Chan., Y. K, “A Theoretical and Operational Definition of Community: The Case of Kwun Tong", pp. 22-23.

213

190

Chan Y. K., "The Development of New Towns in Hong Kong", p.4.

191

Tsuen Wan District Board, Quanwan erbainian: Lishi wenhua jinxi (Two Hundred Years of Tsuen Wan: History and Culture - Now and Then), Hong Kong, Tsuen Wan District Board, 1991, p. 4.

214

Ho, Pui-yin, Weathering the Storm: Hong Kong Observatory and Social Development, p. 74.

192

Hayes, James, Tsuen Wan: Growth of a 'New Town' and Its People, Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 48-49.

215

Sha Tin District Board website: http://www.districtcouncils.gov.hk/st/chinese/welcome.htm

216

193

Bristow, Roger, Hong Kong's New Towns, Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 1989, p. 78.

Sha Tin District Board ed., Shatian gongshang zhinan 92 (Guide to Shatin's Industry and Commerce 92), Hong Kong, 1992,

P. 12.

217

Hong Kong 1973, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1973.

194

Water Supplies Department, Hong Kong's Water, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1996, p. 93.

218

195

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1973- 1974, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1974, p. 56.

Chan, W. T., “Residents in Tuen Mun Community”, Hong Kong Council of Social Service Quarterly, 1971, No 62, pp. 5-12.

219

196

Liang, C. S., Hong Kong: A Physical, Economic and Human Geography, Hong Kong, China Geographical Model Manufactory, 1965, pp. 39-42.

Hayes, James, Tsuen Wan: Growth of a 'New Town' and Its People, p. 68.

220

Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Work for the Financial Year 1952-53, pp. 28-29.

265

264

Challenges for an Evolving City

Panel on Planning, Lands and Works and Panel on Environmental Affairs, Background Brief on Central and Wan Chai Reclamation, Council Business Division 1, Legislative Council Secretariat, LC Paper No CB (1)18/03-04(01), 10 October 2003.

Our Harbour Front webpage: http://www.hplb.gov.hk/cr3/eng/basic/central_chronology040331.htm.

South China Morning Post, 30 April 2004, C3.

Xianggang maijin xin jiyuan (Hong Kong - A New Era), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1998, p. 207.

Territory Development Department webpage: http://www.info.gov.hk/tdd/text/major/west_kowloon.htm Xin jichang gongcheng tongchoushu xinwen ji gonggong guanxibu (New Airport Projects Co-ordination Office Media Relations Division), Xijiulong qunei de jichang hexin jihua (Airport Core Programme Projects in West Kowloon), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1993, p. 2.

Pryor, E. G., Gangkou ji jichang fazhan celue: Xianggang de fazhan jichu (Hong Kong's Port and Airport Development Strategy: A Foundation for Growth), p. 73.

Information Services Department, The Airport Core Programme: Ten Projects That Changed the Shape and Size of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1999, p. 44.

Information Services Department, The Airport Core Programme: Ten Projects That Changed the Shape and Size of Hong Kong, p. 44.

221

222

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Work for the Financial Year 1952-53, Pp. 29-31.

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1953-54, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1954, pp. 45-46.

250

251

223

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1956-57, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1957, p. 40.

252

253

224

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1961-62, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1962, p. 40.

254

225

226

Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works for the Financial Year 1956-57, pp. 37-38.

Standing Committee on Waterborne Transport, Report of the Sub-Committee on Piers, Civil Engineering Office internal documents, File 1001 III Piers (General Policy and Ruling), 1976, p. 1.

255

256

227

Standing Committee on Waterborne Transport, Report of the Sub-Committee on Piers, Civil Engineering Office internal documents, File 1001 III Piers (General Policy and Ruling), pp. 1-3.

228

Hong Kong Container Committee, Report of the Container Committee, Hong Kong, Government Printer, December 1966, p. 15.

229

230

Government Information Services, The Port of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1977.

Hayes, James, Tsuen Wan: Growth of a 'New Town' and Its People, p. 171.

231

232

233

Pigott, Peter, Kai Tak: A History of Aviation in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1990, p. 69.

Guihua huanjing dizhengke (Planning, Environment and Lands Branch), Xianggang de weilai mianmao: haigang tianhai jihua rihou suo dandong de juese gailan (The Shape of Things to Come: An Overview of the Role of Harbour Reclamations in the Future Development of Hong Kong), Hong Kong, Planning, Environment and Lands Branch, 1995, p. 10.

Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Annual Digest of Statistics, Hong Kong, Gov- ernment Printer, 1992, p. 11.

257

258

259

DTZ Debenham Tie Leung website: http://www.dtz.com.hk

260

Xianggang 2002 (Hong Kong 2002), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 2003, p. 169.

261

Hong Kong 1992, p. 8.

262

Lands and Works Branch, Planning for Growth, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1985, p. 25.

263

Hong Kong 1989,, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1989, p. 194.

264

Ta Kung Pao, 23 July 2003; Hong Kong Port Development Council webpage: http://www.pdc.gov.hk/eng/ statistics/hongkong.htm

Notes

265

Hong Kong Economic Journal, 25 June 2003.

234

235

"Population and Immigration", Hong Kong 1996, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1996, 395.

Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong 2001 Population Census Main Report, Hong Kong, Gov- ernment Printer, 2002, p. 35.

266

Hong Kong Commercial Daily, 23 July 2003.

267

Hong Kong Economic Journal, 23 July 2003.

268

Apple Daily, 22 November 2003; Ming Pao, 22 November 2003.

236

238

237

239

Planning Department, Quangang fazhan celue jiantao: jichu baogao zhaiyao (Territorial Development Strategy Review Foundation Report: Executive Summary), Hong Kong, Planning Department, 1993, p. 32.

Planning Department, Quangang fazhan celue jiantao: kegong xuanze de fazhan fangan (Territorial Devel- opment Strategy Review: Development Options), Hong Kong, Planning Department, 1993, pp. 16-18.

Tumu gongchengchu (Civil Engineering Office), Tumu gongchengchu yu gangkou fazhan (Civil Engineer- ing Office and Port Development), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1997, pp. 1-11.

Pryor, E. G., Gangkou ji jichang fazhan celue: Xianggang de fazhan jichu (Hong Kong's Port and Airport Development Strategy: A Foundation for Growth), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1991, p. 7.

Abercrombie, Patrick, Hong Kong Preliminary Planning Report, p. 16.

269

Civil Engineering Department website: http://www.ced.gov.hk

270

Hong Kong Commercial Daily, 31 March 2002, Hong Kong News A03.

271

Wen Wei Po, 19 October 2003, Hong Kong News A12.

272

ATV Web TV News, 14 March 2002, Web Focus.

273

240

241

Pryor, E. G., Gangkou ji jichang fazhan celue: Xianggang de fazhan jichu (Hong Kong's Port and Airport Development Strategy: A Foundation for Growth), pp. 25-27.

277

242

Pryor, E. G., Gangkou ji jichang fazhan celue: Xianggang de fazhan jichu (Hong Kong's Port and Airport Development Strategy: A Foundation for Growth), p. 45.

Hong Kong 1993, p. 199.

278

243

Pryor, E. G., Gangkou ji jichang fazhan celue: Xianggang de fazhan jichu (Hong Kong's Port and Airport Development Strategy: A Foundation for Growth), p. 30.

279

244

Hong Kong 1992, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1992, p. 7.

245

Hong Kong 1992, p. 188.

246

Hong Kong 1995, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1995, p. 252.

247

Hong Kong 1995, p. 203.

248

Hong Kong 1995,

›p.

203.

249

Hong Kong 1999, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 2000, p. 174.

280

Hong Kong 1997, p. 181.

281

Ming Pao, 31 December 2001, Hong Kong News A11.

282

Ming Pao, 31 December 2001, Hong Kong News A17.

283

Wen Wei Po, 6 June 2002, Hong Kong News A10.

284

Ming Pao, 6 May 2002, Hong Kong News A14.

285

Ming Pao, 6 May 2002, Hong Kong News A14.

་

266

Fill Management Division, Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering Department, Information Note 1/2001: Marine Fill Resources & Marine Disposal of Dredged Mud, January 2001.

274

Hong Kong 1993, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1993,

p. 188.

275

276

Hong Kong 1992, pp. 11-12; Hong Kong 1997, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1997, p. 181.

Planning, Environment and Lands Bureau, II Environmental Protection Progress Report, 1997, Planning, Environment and Lands Bureau webpage: http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/pa97/english/rpelb2.htm

Xianggang 2001 (Hong Kong 2001), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 2002, p. 185.

Fill Management Division, Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering Department, Information Note 1/2001: Marine Fill Resources & Marine Disposal of Dredged Mud, January 2001.

267

Major References

286

Ming Pao, 9 May 2002, Hong Kong News A19.

287

288

Civil Engineering Department webpage: http://www.ced.gov.hk/eng/working/environmental/remediation.htm

Fill Management Division, Civil Engineering Department, Information Note 1/2001: Marine Fill Resources & Marine Disposal of Dredged Mud, January 2001.

Information Services Department, Press Release, Hong Kong, 29 October 2003.

Wen Wei Po, 19 October 2003, Hong Kong News A12.

Sing Tao Daily, 26 December 2001; Environmental Protection Department website: http://www.epd.gov.hk

Ming Pao, 16 November 2002.

289

290

291

292

293

Ming Pao, 11 October 2003.

294

Ming Pao, 24 November 2003.

295

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• Accounts of the Colony and Annual Report of the Accountant General, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1955-1972.

•

Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Census, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1961, 1966, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991, 1996, 2001.

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297

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299

300

301

302

303

Jingjiju lüyou shiwushu (Economic Services Bureau Tourism Commission), Zongmu 705: Tumu gongcheng, Caiwu weiyuanhui gongwu xiaozu weiyuanhui taolun wenjian chugao (Head 705: Civil Engineering, Item for Public Works Subcommittee of Finance Committee First Draft), 17 November 1999, PWSC (1999- 2000)xx, Annex A, p. a.

Tumu gongchengshu (Civil Engineering Department), Gongzuo nianbao (Annual Work Report), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 2000, p. 7.

Jingjiju lüyou shiwushu (Economic Services Bureau Tourism Commission), Caiwu weiyuanhui taolun wenjian: ziben touzi jijin chugao (Item for Finance Committee: Capital Investment Fund, First Draft), 26 November 1999, FCR(1999-2000)XX, Annex B, p. 19.

Civil Engineering Department, Legislative Council Panel on Land, Planning and Works Infrastructure Paper: Infrastructure for Penny's Bay Development, Package 3 and Penny's Bay Reclamation Stage 2, LC Paper No CB(1)1648/01-02, May 2002.

Ming Pao, 7 April 2002, Hong Kong News A 10.

Economic Services Bureau Tourism Commission, Legislative Council Panel on Economic Services Paper: Financial Implication of the Decommissioning of Cheoy Lee Shipyard at Penny's Bay, LC Paper No CB(1) 1310/01-02(04), March 2002.

Lifahui jingji shiwu weiyuanhui (Panel on Economic Services), Youguan Xianggang Dishini leyuan nibei de beijing ziliao jianjie (Background Brief on Hong Kong Disneyland), LC Paper No CB(1)117/03-04, Council Business Division 1, Legislative Council Secretariat, 22 October 2003, pp. 5-7.

Environmental Protection Department webpage: http://www.epd.gov.hk/eia/register/report/eiareport/ eia_0412000/

Civil Engineering Department webpages: http://www.ced.gov.hk/eng/working/environmental/reclamation. htm; http://www.ced.gov.hk/eng/working/environmental/landscape_f.htm

•

Civil Engineering Department, Civil Engineering Department: Serving the Community in Slope Safety, Port Development and Land Formation, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 2000.

Colonial Office, CO129, 1884-1930.

• Colonial Office, CO133.

•

The Colonial Outline Plan, Hong Kong Government, 1999, two volumes.

Crown Lands and Survey Office, Public Works Department, Land Utilization in Hong Kong as at 31st March 1966, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1968.

• Development and Airport Division, Civil Engineering Office, Engineering Development Department, Supplement to Report on the Development of Hong Kong International Airport 1920-1982, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1982.

• Development and Airport Division, Civil Engineering Office, Public Works Department, Development of Hong Kong International Airport 1920-1982, Hong Kong, Government Printer, March 1982. Development Division, Public Works Department, Report on Development at Castle Peak, Hong Kong Government, November 1964.

•

• Development Division, Public Works Department, Report on Development at Sha Tin, Hong Kong Government, 1965.

•

Fill Management Division, Civil Engineering Department, Fill Management Database Quarterly Sta- tistics Summary, Hong Kong, Civil Engineering Department, 2001-2003.

• Foreign Office, FO 881.

•

Government Information Services, The Port of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1977. Historical and Statistical Abstract of the Colony of Hong Kong 1841-1930, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1932.

• Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1978-2003.

Hong Kong Administration Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1931-1939.

Challenges for an Evolving City

304

Ming Pao, 23 October 2001, Hong Kong News A03.

305

Wen Wei Po, 23 October 2001, News Focus A16.

306

The Sun, 2 January 2003, Local News A08.

307

308

309

310

311

Ming Pao, 23 December 2002, Hong Kong News A08; Apple Daily, 2 January 2003, Hong Kong News All.

Economic Development and Labour Bureau Tourism Commission, Legislative Council Panel on Eco- nomic Services Paper: Progress Update on Hong Kong Disneyland, LC Paper No CB(1)1198/02-03(03), March 2003.

Hong Kong Disneyland webpage: http://www.info.gov.hk/disneyland/eng.htm

Ta Kung Pao, 1 April 2004, Hong Kong News A07; Zhongguo haiyang bao (China Ocean News), 2 April 2004; Oriental Daily, 1 April 2004, Hong Kong News A28; Ming Pao, 1 April 2004, Hong Kong News A06.

• Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1908-1930.

• Hong Kong Annual Departmental Report by the Director of Public Works 1946-1977, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1947-1978.

• Hong Kong Blue Book, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1844-1884.

•

Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Annual Digest of Statistics, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1992.

Hong Kong Container Committee, Report of the Container Committee, Hong Kong, Government Printer, December 1966.

The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong Government, 1841-1901.

• Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1978-2003.

• Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong Government, 1887-1931.

•

Lands and Works Branch, Hong Kong Territorial Development Strategy, Hong Kong, Government Printer, June 1984.

Lands and Works Branch, Port & Airport Development Strategy: Final Report, Hong Kong, Govern- ment Printer, 1989.

• Planning Division, Station and District Outline Development Plan: Explanatory Statement to Accom- pany Plan No LST 17, Hong Kong, Crown Lands and Surveys Office, 1961.

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References

•

Planning, Environment and Lands Branch, Metroplan: Initial Options, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1988.

Planning, Environment and Lands Branch, Metroplan: The Selected Strategy-An Overview, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1991.

• Planning for Growth, Hong Kong, Government Information Services, 1985.

•

Port Works Division, Public Works Department, Engineering Report on the Proposed Container Terminal at Kwai Chung, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1969.

Port Works Division, Public Works Department, Report on the Quarry Bay Reclamation and Its Construction Programme, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1978.

Sha Tin Development Office, Territory Development Department, Sha Tin Development Programme, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1987.

• Survey and Mapping Office, Lands Department, Hong Kong Guide 2003, Survey and Mapping Office, Lands Department, 2003.

•

Water Supplies Department, Hong Kong's Water, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1996.

• Guihua huanjing dizhengju (Planning, Environment and Lands Bureau), Baohu huanjin gongzuo jindu baogao (Environmental Protection Progress Report), Hong Kong, Government, 1997.

•

Huanjin Baohushu (Environmental Protection Department), Xianggang haishui shuizhi baogao 2002 (Marine Water Quality of Hong Kong in 2002), Hong Kong, Environmental Protection Department, 2003.

Jingjiju luyou shiwushu (Economic Services Bureau Tourism Commission), Legislative Council Papers, 1999-2003.

• Pryor, E. G., Gangkou ji jichang fazhan celue: Xianggang de fazhan jichu (Hong Kong's Port and Airport Development Strategy: A Foundation for Growth), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1991.

• Quangang fazhan celue jiantao: kegong xuanze de fazhan fangan (Territorial Development Strategy Review: Development Options), Hong Kong, Planning Department, 1993.

•

}

Quangang fazhan celue jiantao: jichu baogao zhaiyao (Territorial Development Strategy Review Foundation Report: Executive Summary), Hong Kong, Planning Department, 1993.

Sha Tin District Board ed., Shatian gongshang zhinan 92 (Guide to Shatin's Industry and Commerce 92), Hong Kong, Sha Tin District Board, 1992.

Sha Tin District Board ed., Shatin quyihui jiebao (Sha Tin District Board Report), Hong Kong, Sha Tin District Board, 1985-88.

Tsuen Wan District Board, Quanwan erbainian: Lishi wenhua jinxi (Two Hundred Years of Tsuen Wan: History and Culture - Now and Then), Hong Kong, Tsuen Wan District Board, 1991

• Tumu gongchengshu (Civil Engineering Department), Gongzuo nianbao (Annual Work Report), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 2000.

Tumu gongchengchu (Civil Engineering Office), Tumu gongchengchu yu gangkou fazhan (Civil Engi- neering Office and Port Development), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1997.

• Xianggang maijin xin jiyuan (Hong Kong - A New Era), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1998. Xin jichang gongcheng tongchoushu xinwen ji gonggong guanxibu (New Airport Projects Co-ordina-

tion Office Media Relations Division), Xijiulong qunei de jichang hexin jihua (Airport Core Programme Projects in West Kowloon), Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1993.

Newspapers

English: China Mail, The Friend of China, Hong Kong Daily Press, Hong Kong Standard, Hong Kong Telegraph, South China Morning Post.

•

Chinese: Apple Daily, ATV Web TV News, China Ocean News, Hong Kong Commercial Daily, Hong Kong Economic Journal, Huazi Daily, Industrial and Commercial Daily, Kwun Tong Star, Ming Pao, Oriental Daily, Sha Tin Star, Sing Pao, Sing Tao Daily, The Sun, Ta Kung Pao, Tsuen Wan Star, Wah Kiu Yat Po, Wen Wei Po.

English Books and Articles

• Abercrombie, Patrick, Hong Kong Preliminary Planning Report, Hong Kong Government, 1948.

Aijmer, Goran, Atomistic Society in Shatin, Sweden, Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, 1886.

•

• Bard, Solomon Matthews, Traders of Hong Kong: Some Foreign Merchant Houses, 1841-1899, Hong Kong, Urban Council, 1993.

• Bristow, Roger, Hong Kong's New Towns: A Selective Review, Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 1989.

• Bristow, Roger, Land-use Planning in Hong Kong: History, Policies and Procedures, Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 1984.

• Chan, Chui-hay and Wong, Tak-sing, The Expansion of the Kwai Chung Container Terminal: A Critical Economic Appraisal: Research Report, Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1983.

• Chan, Ying-keung, "Sampling in the Kwun Tong Industrial Community Research Programme", Occa- sional Paper No 2 (1972); “The Growth Pattern of Organizations in Kwun Tong", Occasional Paper No 9 (1972); "The Spatial Distribution of Organizations in Kwun Tong", Occasional Paper No 10 (1972); "The Rise and Growth of Kwun Tong: A Study of Planned Urban Development", Occasional Paper No 26 (1973); "The Development of New Towns in Hong Kong", Occasional Paper No 67 (1977), Social Research Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1972-77.

• Chan, W. T., "Residents in Tuen Mun Community”, Hong Kong Council of Social Service Quarterly, 1971, No 62.

Chiu, T. N., The Port of Hong Kong: A Survey of Its Development, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, 1973.

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Challenges for an Evolving City

Maps

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"Nautical Chart of Harbour: Central Part", Hydrographic Office, Marine Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 1997, 2000, Chart No HK0802.

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274

Interviews

Ir. Lam Moon-tim, Ir. Lam Sing-kwok, Ir. Lau Ching-kwong, Ir. Lo Yiu-ching, Mr. So Wai-kwong, Ir. Tsao Tak-kiang, Mr. Tsui Wai-cheung, Ir Wong Chi-pan.

Night panoramic view of urban Hong Kong in 2004.

2004年香港市區夜景。

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2023-01-01

Challenges for an Evolving City - 160 Years of Port and Land Development in Hong Kong 何佩然 | 2004

Four Miles of Cable - Submarine telegraph policy, Chinese enterprise and the harbour, Hong Kong, 1882–1884

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